FRENCH  MODAL  AUXILIARIES 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA 


FROM    THE    LIBRARY    OF 

PROFESSOR  FELICIEN  VICTOR  PAGET 

BY  BEQUEST  OF  MADAME  PAGET 


1beatb'0  flfeofcern  OUnauaae  Series 


A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 


ON 


FRENCH  MODAL  AUXILIARIES 


CONSIDERED   IN  THEIR  RELATION  TO  GRAMMAR 

AND   IDIOMS;  WITH   EXERCISES   IN   READING,   COMPOSITION 

AND   CONVERSATION 


ALFRED  HENNEQUIN,  PH.D. 

PRINCIPAL  OF  "DR.  HENNEQUIN'S  SCHOOL  OF  LANGUAGES,"  BOSTON 


OF  THE 

(  gwiVEMSITY  ) 

Of 


BOSTON,  U.S.A. 

D.  C.  HEATH  £  CO.,  PUBLISHERS 
1899 


COPYRIGHT,  1899 
BY  D.  C.  HEATH  &  Co. 


1 

PREFACE 


WERE  the  Auxiliaries  of  Mode  in  the  French  language 
treated  at  length  in  our  grammars,  or  were  there  any  French 
work  on  the  subject,  I  should  feel  called  upon  to  apologize 
for  offering  this  little  book  to  teachers  and  students.  As 
matters  stand,  I  hope  this  practical  Treatise  will  be  of  some 
help  to  those  who  seek  something  more  than  a  superficial 
and  misguiding  knowledge  of  one  of  the  most  difficult  and 
also  one  of  the  most  interesting  features  of  the  study  of 
French. 

ALFRED   HENNEQUIN. 

BOSTON,  September,  1899. 


/ 

TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 


PAGE 

PREFACE iii 

CHAPTER    I 

THE  MODAL  AUXILIARY  VERB  DEVOIR 

1.  DEVOIR  expressing  " Indebtedness "    ...  i 

(a)  "Money  Indebtedness"       ....  2 

(b)  "Moral  Debt" 4 

2.  DEVOIR  expressing  "Duty" 7 

3.  DEVOIR  expressing  "Moral  Obligation ?'  .     .  10 

4.  DEVOIR  expressing  "Futurity" 12 

5.  DEVOIR  expressing  "Necessity"     ....  15 

6.  DEVOIR  expressing  "Certainty"      .     .     .     .  18 

7.  DEVOIR  expressing  "Supposition".     ...  20 

8.  DEVOIR  expressing  "Justice" 23 

9.  DEVOIR  used  Idiomatically 26 

CHAPTER   II 
THE  MODAL  AUXILIARY  VERB  FALLOIR 

1.  FALLOIR  expressing  "Necessity"    ....  28 

2.  FALLOIR  expressing  "Obligation".     ...  31 

3.  FALLOIR  expressing  "Difference  Between"  .  34 

4.  FALLOIR  used  Idiomatically 37 


Vi  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER    III 

THE  MODAL  AUXILIARY  VERB  POUVOIR 

1.  POUVOIR  expressing  "Ability,  or  Inability"  .     39 

2.  POUVOIR  expressing  "Permission,  or  Liberty 

to" 42 

3.  POUVOIR  expressing  "Possibility,  or  Impos- 

sibility"      44 

4.  POUVOIR  expressing  "Desire,  or  Longing  to"     47 

5.  POUVOIR  used  Idiomatically 50 

CHAPTER    IV 
THE  MODAL  AUXILIARY  VERB  SAVOIR 

1.  SAVOIR  expressing  "Knowledge,  or  Under- 

standing"        52 

2.  SAVOIR  expressing  "Ability,  or  Inability"    .     55 

3.  SAVOIR  used  Idiomatically 58 

CHAPTER   V 
THE  MODAL  AUXILIARY  VERB  VOULOIR 

1.  VOULOIR  expressing  "Wish,  Desire,  Want"  .     61 

2.  VOULOIR     expressing     "Determination,    or 

Command" 64 

3.  VOULOIR  expressing   "Willingness,  or  Con- 

sent"     68 

4.  VOULOIR  used  Idiomatically 71 


OF  TtiE 


sg*,  _, 

/ 

FRENCH  MODAL  AUXILIARIES 


THE  French  language  has  five  verbs  called  Modal 
Auxiliaries. 
They  are : 

Devoir  Pouvoir 

Falloir  Savoir 

Vouloir 

Each  of  the  modal  auxiliaries  is  used  to  express  cer- 
tain shades  of  meaning. 

I 

THE  MODAL  AUXILIARY  VERB 
Devoir 

The  verb  devoir  expresses: 

Indebtedness  Necessity 

Duty  Certainty 

Obligation  Supposition 

Futurity  Justice 

Idiomatic  meanings 

i.    INDEBTEDNESS 
The  verb  devoir  expresses  indebtedness : 

(a)  When  money  is  involved. 

(b)  When  a  moral  debt  is  implied. 

When  referring  to  money,  devoir  is  usually  translated 
by  to  owe^  to  be  due,  to  be  in  debt,  etc. 


2  FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 

When  referring  to  a  moral  debt,  devoir  is  usually 
translated  by  to  be  indebted  for,  to  be  grateful  for,  etc., 
or  simply  by  to  owe. 

A.    Money  Indebtedness* 
EXAMPLES 


Je  dois  deux  cents  dollars  a 
cet  homme. 

Ne  vous  doit-on  pas  beau- 
coup  d'argent? 

Je  lui  ai  du  tres  peu  d'ar- 
gent. 

Nous  leur  devions  plus  de 
mille  francs. 

Combien  vous  dois-je? 

Us  nous  devraient  des  mil- 
lions si  nous  avions  suivi 
votre  avis. 

Que  je  lui  doive  un  dollar  ou 
cent  dollars,  cela  revient 
au  meme :  je  ne  peux  pas 
payer. 

Je  craignais  qu'il  ne  vous 
dut  une  forte  somme. 


I  owe  that  man  two  hun- 
dred dollars. 

Is  there  not  much  money 
due  you? 

I  have  been  but  very  little 
in  his  debt. 

We  owed  them  more  than  a 
thousand  francs. 

How  much  do  I  owe  you? 

They  would  be  millions  in 
our  debt,  had  we  listened 
to  you. 

Whether  I  owe  him  one  dol- 
lar, or  a  hundred  dollars, 
it  amounts  to  the  same:  I 
cannot  pay. 

I  was  afraid  he  was  heavily 
indebted  to  you  (owed 
you  much  money). 


READING 

Combien  vous  dois-je?  Vous  ne  me  devez  que  cent 
francs.  Autrefois  je  vous  ai  du  beaucoup  d'argent.  Vous 
m'avez  du  et  vous  me  devez  encore  une  forte  somme.  Ne 


*  In  this  sense,  the  verb  devoir  is  not  a  modal  auxiliary. 


DEVOIR  3 

leur  deviez-vous  pas  autant  qu'a  moi?  S'il  m'avait  du 
de  1'argent,  je  vous  1'aurais  dit.  Je  ne  crois  pas  qu'il  me 
doive  plus  de  trois  cents  dollars.  Etait-il  necessaire  que 
vous  lui  dussiez  tant  d'argent?  Je  leur  disais  que  je  ne 
desirais  pas  qu'ils  me  dussent  autant  que  vous  me  devez. 
II  croyait  ne  rien  leur  devoir.  Je  n'ai  jamais  du  un  sou  a 
qui  que  ce  soit.  Evitez  de  devoir  et  vous  serez  heureux. 

COMPOSITION 

Please  tell  me  how  much  I  owe  you.  You  owed  me  two 
hundred  dollars  last  week,  but  now  you  only  owe  me  a  few 
cents.  I  have  no  money;  I  must  be  your  debtor.  Do 
you  know  how  much  has  been  due  to  them?  I  have  never 
been  so  much  in  debt  as  I  am  now.  He  will  never  pay 
me,  whether  he  owes  me  {present  subjective)  little  or  much. 

I  have  owed  money  all  my  life.     He  who  has  never  owed 
any  money  has  always  been  rich.     To  owe  is  easy,  to  pay 
is  difficult. 

CONVERSATION 

Let  the  student  translate  the  French  sentences  on  the  left  side 
of  the  page,  and  then  give  the  correct  answers,  supplying  the 
required  verbal  forms  in  the  other  column. 

Lui    devez  -  vous    beaucoup  Oui ;   je  crois  lui  (verb)  au 

d'argent  ?  moins  mille  dollars. 

II  m'a  dit  que  vous  lui  deviez  Oui ;  je  lui  en  (verb) ;    mais 
de  1'argent ;  est-ce  vrai  ?  j'espere  ne  pas  lui  en  (verb) 

.  longtemps. 

Voulez-vous    que    je    vous  Non;    je  n'aime  pas  qu'on 

doive  cette  somme?  me  (verb)  de  1'argent. 

Pourquoi  ne  lui  pretez-vous  Je  sais  fort  bien  qu'il  ne  me 

pas   dix   dollars?      II    ne  les  (verb)  pas  longtemps; 

vous  les  devra  pas  long-  mais  je  n'ai  pas  d'argent  a 

temps.  preter. 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


Leur  etait-il  du  plus  de  deux 

mille  dollars? 
Combien  vous  serait-il  du  si 

vous    aviez   vendu  toutes 

vos  marchandises  ? 
II  pretend  ne  rien  me  devoir; 

est-ce  croyable? 

Ne  m'avez-vous  pas  dit  qu'il 
vous  serait  du  beaucoup 
d'argent  a  la  fin  du  mois? 

Vous  est-il  du  quelque  chose  ? 


Oui;  il  leur  (verb)  de  trois  & 
quatre  mille  dollars. 

II  me  (verb)  beaucoup  moms 
d'argent  que  si  vous  les 
aviez  vendues. 

Je  ne  croyais  pas  qu'il  vous 
(verb,  imp.  subj.)  un  cen- 
time. 

Vous  vous  trompez :  il  ne  me 
(verb)  que  cent  francs, 
meme  si  j'avais  fini  mon 
travail. 

Non;  il  ne  m'  (verb)  rien  du 
tout. 


B.    Moral  Debt* 


EXAMPLES 


Vous  lui  devez  beaucoup;  il 
vous  a  sauve'  la  vie. 

II  n'a  jamais  realise  qu'il  me 
devait  tout  son  bonheur. 

Ne  nous  devons-nous  pas  les 

uns  aux  autres? 
Je  vous  devrais  plus  que  la 

vie   si   vous    faisiez    cela 

pour  moi. 


You  owe  him  much;  he  has 

saved  your  life. 
He    never   did   realize   that 

all  his  happiness  was  due 

to  me. 
Should     we     not    help    one 

another? 
I  should  be  indebted  to  you 

for    more    than    my    life 

were  you   to  do  that  for 

me. 


*  As  with   the    case  of   money  indebtedness,   the    verb    devoir   im- 
plying a  moral  debt  is  not  a  modal  auxiliary. 


DEVOIR  5 

II  craignait  qu'il  ne  me  dut  He  was  afraid  of  being  too 
trop;  il  est  si  fier.  y  much  indebted  to  me;  he 

is  so  proud. 

Nous  leur  en  avons  du  une  We  have  always  felt  grateful 
eternelle  reconnaissance.  to  them  for  it  (eternally 

grateful). 

Si  vous  faites  cela  pour  lui,  Will  he  care  for  you  if  you 
vous  en  devra-t-il  quelque  do  that  for  him  (care 
amour?  more  or  less  for  you)? 

Nous  ne  croyons  pas  que  We  do  not  believe  we  owe 
nous  lui  en  devions  la  him  any  love  for  it  (none 
moindre  affection.  whatever). 

READING 

J'ai  souvent  pense  que  c'etait  a  vous  que  je  devais  toute 
ma  prosperite.  Songe-t-il,  au  moins,  a  tout  ce  qui  vous  est 
du?  Vous  me  devriez  une  eternelle  reconnaisance  si  je  le 
faisais.  Pensez-vous  que  je  lui  doive  autant  d'affection  que 
d'estime?  Je  n'ai  jamais  regu  de  mes  enfants  tout  Pamour 
qui  m'etait  du.  Us  ne  vous  devront  que  des  remerciements. 
Du  respect?  Oui;  monsieur,  vous  m'en  devez.  S'ilTafait, 
sans  que  nous  Ten  priions,  nous  lui  devrons  beaucoup.  On 
ne  sait  jamais  a  qui  Ton  doit  les  malheurs  qui  nous  ac- 
cablent.  Vous  dites  qu'on  ne  vous  a  pas  bien  regu?  On 
vous  a  rendu  ce  qui  vous  etait  du.  Moi,  vous  devoir 
quelque  chose!  Avez-vous  perdu  1'esprit? 

COMPOSITION 

I  owe  him  sincere  thanks,  but  have  not  had  the  time  to 
write  to  him.  I  shall  ever  be  indebted  to  her  for  all  she 
has  done  for  us.  To  God,  we  owe  our  intellect;  to  our- 


6  FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 

selves,  the  duty  to  cultivate  it.  Why  should  we  be  grateful 
to  them?  Children  seldom  give  their  parents  all  the  love 
they  deserve  (that  is  due  to  them).  She  will  not  consider 
herself  indebted  to  you  if  you  tell  her  the  truth.  You 
claim  that  I  owe  you  respect;  are  you  worthy  of  the  least 
consideration  ?  They  would  have  been  indebted  to  us  for 
their  daily  bread  had  they  given  us  our  dues.  You  owe  it 
to  yourself,  if  to  no  one  else.  She  realized  how  much  he 
had  done  in  her  behalf. 


CONVERSATION 


A  qui  devez-vous  les  mo- 
ments les  plus  heureux  de 
votre  vie? 

Me  devriez-vous  beaucoup 
de  reconnaissance  si  je 
vous  le  disais? 

De  quoi  vous  plaignez-vous? 

Pourquoi  craignez-vous  que 

je    ne   lui    en    doive    pas 

assez  de  gratitude  ? 
Que  ne  vous  devait-elle  pas! 

Le  sait-elle? 
Vos   enfants    vous    doivent 

beaucoup ;  mais  moins  qu'a 

moi. 
Faites-le,  et  je  vous  devrai 

le   bonheur  de    toute   ma 

vie. 
Vous  dit-il  qualque  chose? 


Je  (verb)  les  plus  heureux 
moments  de  ma  vie  a  mes 
parents. 

Oui;  je  vous  en  (verb)  une 
reconnaissance  eternelle? 

De  ce  que  vous  ne  me  (verb) 

pas  votre  bonheur. 
Vous  ne  faites  jamais  voir  a 

vos   amis   que   vous   leur 

(verb)  quelque  chose. 
Elle  ne  saura  jamais  tout  ce 

qu'elle  me  (verb). 
Pourquoi  pensez-vous  qu'ils 

vous  (verb)  plus  qu'a  moi? 

En  attendant,  soyez  satisfait 
de  ce  que  vous  me  (verb) 
de'a. 

Pourquoi  ne  me  (verb,  condi- 
tional interrogative)  rien  ? 


DEVOIR  7 

2.     DUTY 

The  verb  devoir  expresses  duty : 

(a)  When  ought,  in  English,  implies  duty. 

(b)  When  must  does  not  convey  an  order,  but 

an  admonition. 

(c)  When  should  has  the  meaning  of  ought, 

and    carries    along   with   it   an   idea  of 
advice. 

(d}    When  should  stands  for  am  to,  was  to. 

NOTE.  —  Devoir  now  becomes  a  modal  auxiliary,  and  should  be 
followed  by  a  verb  in  the  infinitive. 

EXAMPLES 

Je  sais  que  je  devrais  tout  I  know  I  ought  to  tell  him 

lui  dire;  mais  je  n'en  ai  all,  but  I  have  neither  the 

pas  le  courage,   ni  meme  courage,  nor  the  desire  to 

1'envie.  do  so. 

Note  that  the  conditional  devrais  points  out  a  conditional  relation 
between  a  duty  and  a  lack  of  courage  and  desire — hence  ought.  The 
present,/*  dots,  would  express  very  much  the  same  idea,  but  does  not 
tell  quite  so  clearly  that  it  would  be  a  duty.  Besides  the  present  might 
convey  a  different  meaning  altogether,  as  we  shall  see  further  on, 

Ne  realisiez-vous  pas  que  Did  you  not  realize  you 
vous  deviez  y  etre  alle  ought  to  have  gone  with 
avec  lui?  him? 

Note  that  the  imperfect  deviez,  points  out,  in  the  past,  a  duty  which 
ought  to  have  been  performed  at  the  same  time  in  the  past,  hence  ought 
to  have  gone. 


8  FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 

Nous  1'avons  fait  parce  que      We  did  it  because  we  believed 
nous  avons  cru  devoir  le          it  our  duty  (to  do  it). 
faire. 

Note  devoir  in  the  infinitive  because  it  follows  cru.  The  idea  of 
duty  might  be  expressed  by  ought:  "we  did  it  because  we  thought  we 
ought  to  do  it."  Yet  ought  would  not  quite  express  the  idea  that  the 
deed  was  done  in  the  past; — '•''did  it"  and  "ought"  not  necessarily 
involving  a  concordance  of  tenses. 

Us  nous  ont  dit  que  nous  au-  They  told  us  we  ought  to 
rions  du  commencer  plus  have  began  earlier.  It  is 
tot.  C'est  vrai.  true. 

Note  the  conditional  past,  aurions  du;  that  is,  a  duty  that  ought 
to  have  been  performed  earlier,  the  idea,  for  instance,  of  success,  or 
the  fullfiiment  of  a  certain  task,  being  conditional  upon  an  earlier 
beginning. 

N'ayez  aucune  crainte:  le  Have  no  fear;  the  first  whose 
premier  qui  doive  le  faire  duty  it  is  to  do  it,  will 
le  fera.  do  it. 

Note  the  subjunctive  after  le  premier  qui.  There  is,  in  this  sentence, 
a  suggestion  of  a  future  idea,  that  is,  "whose  duty  it  will  be  to  do  it." 

READING 

Ne  devriez-vous  pas  consulter  vos  amis  avant  de  de'cider? 
Je  sais  fort  bien  que  je  devrais  leur  en  parler;  mais  il  est 
trop  tard.  II  devait  le  faire  (he  ought  to  have  done  it) 
pour  me  faire  plaisir.  II  ne  fait  jamais  ce  qu'il  devrait 
faire.  Nous  ne  pensions  pas  que  nous  dussions  faire  cela 
pour  eux.  Qui  pretend  que  nous  devons  le  faire?  Rien 
ne  nous  y  oblige.  Us  se  le  devaient  a  cause  de  leur  repu- 
tation. Pourquoi  n'ont-ils  pas  cru  devoir  parler  en  notre 
faveur?  Elle  a  eu  tort  de  croire  qu'elle  devait  le  faire  pour 


DEVOIR 


nous  faire  plaisir.  II  ne  pensait  pas  qu'il  dut  le  faire  pour 
vous  etre  agreable.  Fais  ton  devoir.  Que  je  doive  le  faire, 
ou  non,  cela  me  regarde. 

COMPOSITION 

He  considers  it  his  duty  to  do  it.  You  ought  to  do  it 
for  your  own  satisfaction.  Did  they  not  consider  it  their 
duty  to  speak  to  your  father?  You  say  you  did  it  because 
you  considered  it  a  duty?  Yes;  I  would  have  considered 
it  a  duty  sooner  or  later.  Who  is  of  my  opinion  (Who 
thinks  he  ought  to  do  it,  etc.)  ?  I.  They  told  us  we  ought 
to  have  gone  there  with  them.  Even  if  it  were  my  duty  to 
tell  all  I  know,  I  would  not  say  a  word.  I  do  not  know  what 
I  ought  to  write  to  your  friend.  It  is  your  duty. 

CONVERSATION 


Nous  sommes  leurs  amis  ;    ne 

devaient-ils    pas    nous     le 

dire? 
Us     savent    qu'ils    devrairnt 

nous    en    parler;    mais    ils 

n'osent  le  faire. 
Pourquoi    n'ont-ils     pas    cru 

devoir  venir? 
Dites-moi,    je   vous    en   prie, 

ce  que  je  dois  faire. 
N'auraient  ils   pas  du   penser 

un  peu  plus  a  nous? 

II  m'a  prie*  de  lui  dire  ce 
qu'il  devait  demander. 

Pourquoi  n'a-t-elle  pas  cru 
devoir  se  marie r? 


Quoique     vous     soyez     leurs 

amis,  je  ne  pense  pas  qu'ils 

(verb)  vous  le  dire. 
Etes  -  vous      certain      qu'ils 

sachent  qu'ils   (verb}   vous 

en  parler? 
IPs  n'ont  pas  cru  (verb)  venir 

sans  qu'on  le  leur  disent. 
Ne  savez-vous  pas  vous  meme 

ce  que  vous  (verb)  faire? 
II  n'est  pas  ton  jours  facile  de 

savoir     ce     qu'on     (verb) 

penser. 
II  ne  (verb)  rien  demander; 

c'eut  e"te"  bien  plus  simple. 
Elle    n'a    pas    cru    (verb)    se 

marier  a  cause  de  son  age. 


10 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


3.    MORAL  OBLIGATION 

The  verb  devoir  expresses  a  moral  obligation  when 
the  duty  it  implies  appeals  to  our  conscience. 

Devoir  is  then  closely  related  to  duty  in  a  general 
sense,  frequently  adding  to  duty  a  sense  of  admonition. 

When  expressing  a  moral  obligation,  devoir  should 
be  translated  by  must,  should,  ought,  to  be  morally 
obliged  to,  etc. 

N.  B.  —  Let  the  student  compare  the  following  examples  with  those 
used  in  Section  2.  He  will,  in  most  instances,  notice  there  is  a  marked 
difference  of  meaning  between  mere  duty  and  a  moral  obligation. 

It  is  useless  to  repeat  that,  used  as  an  auxiliary  of  mode,  the  verb 
devoir  should  be  followed  by  another  verb.  This  applies  to  all  modal 
auxiliaries. 

EXAMPLES 


Un  bon  fils    doit   respecter 

ses  parents. 
Je  sais  fort  bien  que  je  de- 

vrais  vous  le  donner. 
II  savait  qu'il  ne  devait  pas 

en  avoir  parle. 
N'auriez-vous  pas  du  le  lui 

dire? 
Je  crains  que  je  ne  doive  pas 

faire  eel  a. 
Us  devraient  bien  penser  a 

nous. 
Que    ne    devrions-nous    pas 

faire  pour  les  autres ! 
Elle   savait   aussi    bien   que 

moi  qu'elle  ne  devait  pas 

le  faire. 


A  good  son  ought  to  respect 

his  parents. 
I  know  very  well  I  ought  to 

give  it  to  you. 
He  knew  he  should  not  have 

spoken  about  it. 
Ought  you  not  to  have  told 

him? 
I  fear  I  ought  not  to  do  that. 

They  ought  to  think  of  us. 

What  should  we  not  do  for 

others! 
She  knew  as  well  as  I  she 

should  not  do  it. 


DEVOIR  I  I 

READING 

Ne  sentez-vous  pas  qide  vous  devez  le  faire?  Oui;  je  sais 
que  je  devrais  le  faire;  mais  fait-on  toujours  ce  qu'on  doit 
faire?  II  devrait  n'y  plus  penser:  cela  le  rend  trop  mal- 
heureux,  Une  jeune  fille  doit  etre  modeste  sans  affecta- 
tion. Us  ne  savent  s'ils  doivent  en  parler  a  votre  pere. 
On  doit  aimer  la  vie,  meme  quand  on  est  malheureux. 
Vous  devriez  chanter  rien  que  pour  nous  faire  plaisir. 
Devoir  faire  quelque  chose,  et  le  faire,  sont  deux  choses 
bien  differentes.  Tout  vous  dit  que  vous  devriez  aller  a 
Peglise  plus  souvent.  Je  craignais  que  je  ne  dusse  vous  en 
parler.  Une  voix  interieure  nous  dit  toujours  ce  que  nous 
devrions  faire. 

COMPOSITION 

I  consider  it  my  moral  duty  always  to  tell  the  truth.  I 
ought,  out  of  self-respect,  to  do  what  I  have  promised  to  do. 
You  should  learn  your  lessons,  should  it  but  be  because 
you  owe  it  to  your  teacher.  She  knew  she  should  have  told 
him  all,  but  she  did  not  dare  do  so.  Be  honest  to  thyself, 
(fais  ce  que  tu  dots),  come  what  may  (advienne  que  pourra), 
is  a  French  saying.  We  had  to  believe  (il  nous  fallut  croire) 
we  were  wrong ;  we  owed  it  to  our  self-respect  (use  the  im- 
perfect indicative  of  devoir).  He  will  feel  obliged  to  speak 
about  it,  if  he  knows  the  difference  between  right  and 
wrong.  He  cannot  have  thought  of  the  future;  that  is 
what  we  ought  always  to  do.  If  you  knew  you  were  morally 
obliged  to  do  it,  would  you  do  it  ? 

CONVERSATION 

II  me  semble  que  vous  de-  Oui;  je  sais  que  je  le  (verb)-, 
vriez  savoir  que  vous  de-  mais  je  n'en  ai  pas  le  CQU- 
vez  le  faire.  rage, 


12 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


Pourquoi  ne  lui  a-t-elle  pas 
ecrit  cette  nouvelle? 

Savent  -  ils  qu'ils  devraient 
nous  en  parler? 

Dites-moi  que  j'ai  tort,  et  je 
ne  le  ferai  pas. 

Ils  craignent  qu'ils  ne 
doivent  pas  faire  cela  tant 
ils  ont  peur  de  mal  faire. 

Elle  ne  savait  ce  qu'elle  de- 

vait  esp£rer. 
II  n'a  pas  cm  devoir  nous  le 

dire  ;  savez-vous  pourquoi  ? 


Elle  ne  croyait  pas  (verb)   la 

lui  ecrire. 
Non ;  ils  ne  savent  jamais  ce 

qu'ils  (verb}  faire. 
On  ne  (verb)   pas  demander 

ce  qu'on  (verb)  faire. 
Dites-leur  de  faire  ce  qu'ils 

croient  (verb)  faire.    Qu'ils 

se    souviennent     du     pro- 

verbe  francais. 
Elle    (verb)   savoir  qu'on  ne 

(verb)  pas  le  croire. 
Selon  lui  il   ne   croit   jamais 

(verb)    nous   dire  ce  qu'il 

sait. 


4.     FUTURITY 

The  verb  devoir  expresses  futurity,  generally  of  a 
probable  character. 

When  the  verb  devoir  expresses  a  probable  future, 
it  is  usually  rendered,  in  English,  by  am  to,  was  to, 
to  expect  to,  to  intend  to,  to  contemplate  (doing,  etc., 
something),  to  hope  to  (attaching  no  importance  to  it), 
and  other  similar  ideas. 

Note  that  probable  futurity  calls  for  the  present  and  past  tenses 
only,  in  the  indicative  and  subjunctive  moods. 

Je  dois  alter  a  New  York  demain,  "  I  am  to  go  to  New  York 
to-morrow,"  and  je  devais  aller  a  New  York  hier,  "  I  was  to  go  to 
New  York  yesterday,"  convey  the  idea  that  there  is,  or  was,  a  probable 
going  to  New  York. 

In  either  case,  however,  there  may  be  an  additional  shade  of  duty, 
or  of  a  moral  obligation. 


DEVOIR  13 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  use  the  future  or  conditional,  the  idea  of 
futurity  disappears  almost  entirely,  the  former  conveying  more  an  idea 
of  being  obliged  to,  and  the  latter,  a  moral  duty. 

Tu  devras  aller  a  New  York  demain,  "  you  will  have  to  go  to  New 
York  to-morrow." 

Je  devrais  aller  a  New  York  avec  vous,  "  I  ought  (it  is  my  moral 
duty)  to  go  to  New  York  with  you." 

In  both  of  these  sentences,  the  idea  of  futurity  is  very  secondary. 

Let  the  student  carefully  compare  the  different  exercises  of  this 
section  with  those  of  the  second  and  third  sections.  In  some  of  the 
sentences  of  each  he  will  find  two  or  more  shades  of  meanings,  the 
actual  meaning  being,  in  many  instances,  the  one  a  full  text,  or  a 
conversation  would  convey,  that  is,  the  "atmosphere"  surrounding  the 
sentence. 


EXAMPLES 


Ne  devez-vous  pas  aller  a 
Paris  cette  anne"e? 

Ne  devait-elle  pas  chanter 
ce  soir? 

Ne  devions-nous  pas  faire 
cela  ensemble? 

Oui ;  nous  devious  le  faire  en- 
semble; mais  nous  avons 
du  n'y  plus  penser. 

Je  crains  que  je  ne  doive 
aller  a  New  York  demain. 

II  me  dit  qu'il   doit  bientot 

s'en  aller. 
Ne  deviez-vous  pas  vous   en 

aller  avec  lui  aujourd'hui? 


Are  you  not  to  go  to   Paris 

this -year? 
Was    she    not    to    sing    this 

evening? 
Were    we    net    to    do    that 

together  ? 
Yes,    we    were    to    do    that 

together,      but     we     were 

obliged  to    think    no  more 

of  it. 
I   am  afraid   I   am   to  go  to 

New  York  to-morrow  (not 

necessarily  made  to  go). 
He  tells  me  he  is  soon  to  go 

away. 
Did    you   not    expect    to    go 

away  with  him  to-day? 


14  FRENCH  MODAL  AUXILIARIES 

READING 

II  doit  revenir  d'un  jour  a  Pautre.  Ne  doit-il  pas  partir 
aujourd'hui?  II  devait  partir  hier;  mais  il  est  encore  ici. 
Vous  deviez  venir  chez  nous  il  y  a  plus  d'un  mois.  Le 
devais- je  ?  je  Pai  oublie.  Oui ;  vous  deviez  nous  faire 
une  visite  en  revenant  de  Paris.  Nous  devons  entreprendre 
un  grand  travail  cette  annee.  Mes  freres  doivent  vous 
aider,  n'est-ce  pas?  Non;  ils  ne  doivent  que  nous  guider. 
J'ai  du  aller  en  France  cet  ete;  mais  Pargent  m'a  manque. 
Je  ne  pense  pas  que  je  doive  m'en  aller  avant  la  fin  du 
mois.  Nous  devions  vous  ecrire  hier;  mais  le  temps 
nous  a  manque.  Quoiqu'ils  dussent  y  retourner,  ils  ne 
sont  jamais  revenus.  Que  ne  dois-je  pas  faire  d'ici  a 
demain  ! 

COMPOSITION 

I  am  to  write  to  my  sister  in  a  few  days.  He  was 
expected  to  arrive  this  morning  at  ten  o'clock.  He  was 
to  go  to  Europe  with  us  this  year.  They  intend  to  begin 
as  soon  as  they  reach  home.  She  contemplates  my  going 
instead  of  her.  She  has  a  mind  to  come  back  as  soon  as 
she  can.  We  were  to  start  to-day,  but  we  were  unable  to 
do  so.  Who  is  to  sing  at  the  concert  this  evening?  My 
sister  was  to  sing  if  yours  were  ill.  Although  he  expected 
to  leave  this  month,  he  is  still  in  Paris.  I  do  not  know 
when  he  is  to  start.  I  was  to  go  with  him  if  he  left  early 
in  May. 

CONVERSATION 

Lequel  de  vous  deux  doit  C'est  moi  qui  (verb)  m'en 

s'en  aller  demain  ?  aller  a  ce  qu'on  dit. 

Ne  devait -elle  pas  revenir  Oui,  elle  (verb)  revenir  ce 

ce  soir?  matin  avec  ma  sceur. 


DEVOIR  15 

Quand      devaient-ils     vous  Us  (verb)  m'ecrire  des  leur 

ecrire?  arrivee  a  Paris. 

Ne  devons-nous  pas  chanter  On  m'a  dit  que  nous  (verb) 

ensemble  a  ce  concert?  chanter    ensemble;    mais 

au  prochain  concert. 

Qu'a-t-il  dit?    part-il  aujour-  II  a  dit  qu'il  (verb)  partir; 

d'hui?  mais  il  est  encore  ici. 

Je  suis  encore  ici;  mais  j'ai  En   effet,    on    m'a    dit    que 

du  m'en   aller  plus  d'une          vous  (verb)  vous  en  aller 

fois.  au  mois  de  Juin. 

Ne  devez-vous  pas  etudier  Je     (verb)     le    faire,    si    je 

le  frangais  cette  annee?  trouve  un  bon  maitre. 

Que    doivent  -  ils     faire     ce  Us  ne  savent  ce  qu'ils  (verb) 

matin  ?  faire. 

5.    NECESSITY 

The  verb  devoir  expresses  a  necessity  when  a  duty, 
or  moral  obligation  is  not  clearly  involved  although 
hinted  at. 

Je  dois  vous  en  parler  pour  que  ce  ne  soit  pas  lui  qui 
vous  le  dise.  "It  is  necessary  that  I  speak  to  you  about 
it,  so  that  it  be  not  he  who  tell  it  to  you." 

Note  that/V  dois  expresses  a  necessity,  originating  in  the  speakers' 
own  feelings. 

This  sentence  standing  alone  might  mean  I  shall  (some  time  in  the 
future)  speak  to  you  about  it,  or  /  am  obliged  to  speak  to  you  about  it,  it  is 
my  duty  to  speak  to  you  about  it,  etc. 

In  this  instance,  as  in  many  others,  it  is  the  ensemble,  i.  e.,  the  text, 
or  the  circumstances  calling  for  the  sentence  that  decide  the  actual 
shade  of  meaning. 

However,  the  imperfect  of  the  subjunctive  of  devoir,  in  {he 
interrogative  form,  used  as  an  exclamation,  implies  actual  necessity, 
rejecting  any  other  possible  shade  of  meaning. 


16 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


Necessity,  expressed  with  devoir,  calls  for  various  English  forms, 
such  as :  it  is  necessary,  it  is  advisable,  it  is  best,  it  is  proper,  to  have  to, 
or  simply  must. 

In  the  case  cf  the  imperfect  of  the  subjunctive  ^  interrogative,  used  as 
an  exclamation,  the  English  translation  is  usually:  were  I  (tliou,  he, 
she,  we,  you,  they)  to,  —  that  is,  were  it  necessary  for  me  (or  some  one 
else)  to  (see  "Examples"). 

EXAMPLES 


Pourquoi  avez-vous  cm  que 
vous  deviez  le  faire? 

Je  vois  bien  que  nous  devons 
vous  aider 

Us  pensaient  qu'ils  devaient 
parler  Francais  a  Paris. 

Vous  devez  letir  en   toucher 

deux  mots. 
Nous  ne  pensons  pas  qu'elle 

doive     djonner      tant      de 

de"  tails. 
Dusse  -  je  etre   blame",    je    le 

ferai.* 
Dut  cela  finir  mal,  fais-le. 

Dussions  -  nous  en  mourir, 
nous  le  ferons. 


Why  did  you  believe  it  was 
necessary  for  you  to  do  it? 

I  see,  indeed,  that  we  have 
to  help  you. 

They  thought  it  was  neces- 
sary for  them  to  speak 
French  in  Paris. 

It  will  be  well  for  you  to 
give  them  a  hint. 

We  do  not  think  she  need 
give  so  many  details. 

Were  I  blamed  (even  if  I 
were  blamed)  I  shall  do  it? 

Even  if  that  ends  badly, 
do  it. 

Were  we  to  die  for  doing  it, 
we  shall  do  it. 


READING 

Vous  me  dites  que  vous  1'avez  fait  quand  vous  avez  dii 
le  faire?  Je  ne  vous  crois  pas.  Avez-vous  pense  que  vous 
deviez  parler  francais  a  Paris?  Oui ;  tout  le  monde  croit 

*  Note  the  accent  on  dusse-je. 


DEVOIR  I/ 

qu'on  doit  parler  la  langue  du  pays.  Dites-le  nous  pour 
que  nous  sachions  ce>  que  nous  devons  faire.  Ecoutez-le! 
que  ne  croit-il  pas  devoir  dire?  Nous  separer!  Oui;  nous 
le  devons  a  notre  bonheur  futur.  Dussiez-vous  mourir  de 
faim,  perseverez.  Dut-elle  ne  plus  m'aimer,  je  lui  dirai  la 
verite.  Dut-il  pleuvoir,  je  sors.  Dusse-je  m'attirer  sa 
haine,  je  le  ferai.* 

COMPOSITION 

Do  it,  if  it  is  necessary  to  your  happiness.  It  is  neces- 
sary for  him  to  ask  me  if  he  wishes  to  know  all.  Ought  I 
really  to  go  there?  I  did  it  because  I  deemed  it  best.  It 
is  best  you  went  there  so  as  to  see  him.  He  believed  it 
was  not  necessary  to  speak  about  it.  They  had  to  say  it 
over  and  over  again  to  be  understood.  I  see  you  had  to 
do  it  for  her  sake.  We  do  not  think  he  will  consider  it  a 
necessity  to  do  it.  Even  if  she  did  come,  I  do  not  see 
why  you  should  not  remain  here.  Were  one  to  ask  you  to 
repeat  it,  do  not  do  it.  Even  if  he  be  ruined,  they  will 
not  forsake  him. 

CONVERSATION 

Dites-moi  done  pourquoi  A  ma  place,  n'auriez-vous 

vous  y  etes  alle'  ?  pas  cru  (verb)  y  aller  ? 

II  me  semble  que  vous  Oui;  vous  avez  raison :  je 

devez  parler :  cela  les  (verb),  et  je  compte  bien 

aiderait.  le  faire. 

Quand  vous  e'tiez  a  Paris,  En  arrivant,  je  croyais  que 

quelle  langue  avez -vous  je  (verb)  parler  frangaisc 

parle'  ?  J'y  ai  parle'  anglais. 

Que  ne  doit-il  croire,  d'apres  II  (verb)  croire  que  nous 

ce  que  vous  m'en  dites!  n'avons  rien  fait  pour  lui, 

*  Note  the  interrogative  form  dussfye. 


I  8  FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 

Je  vous  engage  a  ne  pas  le      (Verb)-\\    me    hair,    je    lui 

lui  dire.  dirai  tout. 

Dussiez-vous  arriver  en  re-      Oui ;     (zw^)-nous    n'arriver 

tard,  allez-y  a  pieds.  qu'a  la  fin,   nous  y  irons 

a  pieds. 
Si    vous    continuez    a    agir      (/^r^)-elle  m'en  vouloir  (be 

ainsi,  je  le  lui  dirai.  angry  with    me),    je   con- 

tinuerai. 
On  va  penser  que  vous  avez      (Verfr)-on    le    penser,    peu 

peur.  m'importe. 

6.    CERTAINTY 

The  verb  devoir  expresses  a  certainty  when  must,  in 
English,  does  not  imply  an  order,  an  obligation,  or  a 
possibility. 

Tons  les  hommes  doivent  mourir,   "all  men  must  die." 

Note  that  must%  in  this  sentence,  does  not  imply  an  order,  an 
obligation,  or  a  possibility. 

Note,  however,  that,  besides  certainty,  the  above  sentence  conveys 
a  slight  idea  of  necessity. 

Note  too,  that  with  the  conditional  of  devoir,  the  meaning  changes, 
and  that  the  idea  of  an  obligation  prevails. 

Vous  devez  avoir  fini,  "you  have  (certainly)  finished." 

Vous  devriez  avoir  fini,  "you  ought  to  have  finished,"  i.e.,  there  was 
an  obligation  (which  you  should  have  felt)  of  finishing. 

EXAMPLES 

II  devra    certainement    en      He  must  (or  will)  surely  die 
mourir.  from  it. 

Je  dis  que  vous  devez  Pavoir  You  certainly  must  have 

fait.  done  it.  I  say  it. 

Nous  devrons  nous  ruiner  We  are  to  (we  certainly  will) 

pour  le  sauver.  ruin  ourselves  to  save  him. 


DEVOIR 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


On  doit  etre  heureux  quand 
on  a  tant  d'argent! 

Us  ont  du  voyager  nuit  et 

jour. 
II    doit    pleuvoir    avant    ce 

soir. 
Vous   devez    avoir  tout    ra- 

conte. 
Je  vous  assure  qu'ils  devront 

nous  le  dire,  si  nous  in- 

sistons. 


19 


How  not  be  happy  with  so 
much  money!  (One  must 
be  happy). 

They  must  have  travelled 
night  and  day. 

It  will  certainly  rain  before 
evening. 

You  certainly  did  relate 
everything. 

I  assure  you  they  will  cer- 
tainly tell  it  to  us,  if  we 
insist. 


READING 

Toutes  les  feuilles  doivent  tomber  par  un  tel  froid.  Us 
doivent  y  etre  aujourd'hui;  je  n'en  ai  aucun  doute.  Vous 
devez  avoir  paye  pour  entrer;  personne  n'entre  gratis. 
Je  sais  fort  bien  que  je  dois  y  perdre  toute  ma  fortune; 
mais  que  faire?  Ne  doivent-ils  pas  m'en  vouloir!  (be 
angry  with  me).  II  doit  neiger  cette  nuit,  je  vous  en  pre- 
viens.  Certainement,  ils  doivent  etre  a  Paris  depuis  long- 
temps.  II  est  souvent  bien  triste  de  penser  qu'on  doit  un 
jour  mourir.  On  devra  s'y  amuser  vu  que  vous  y  serez. 
Que  la  vie  serait  triste  sans  vous!  Si  vous  le  dites,  cela 
doit  etre. 

COMPOSITION 

Life  must  be  sad  indeed  without  hope.  He  is  certainly 
coming:  he  never  fails  to  come  on  Sundays.  You  will 
certainly  be  ill  if  you  persist  in  doing  so  much.  They 
knew  they  must  die  (that  they  certainly  were  to  die),  but 
they  did  not  waver.  We  must  all  die  sooner  or  later,  but 
we  are  in  no  hurry.  It  will  rain  before  to-morrow  morning. 


2O  FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 

You  must  have  forgotten  to  give  him  the  money  (you  cer- 
tainly did  forget).  They  will  be  with  us,  you  say?  We 
shall  certainly  enjoy  ourselves.  You,  you  should  believe 
me;  you  know  that  I  never  lie. 

CONVERSATION 

Pourquoi  penser  a  la  mort  ?      Parce  que  nous  (verb)  tous 

mourir. 

Non ;  vous  ne  devez  pas  le      Pourquoi  pensez-vous  que  je 
lui  avoir  dit.  ne  (verb)  pas  le  lui  avoir 

dit? 
Je   vous    assure    qu'on    doit      Si  vous  y  etes,  on  (verb  fut.) 

s'y  amuser.  s'y  amuser. 

II  doit  venir,  puisque  c'est      Que     vous     me     le     disiez, 
moi  qui  vous  le  dis.  n'est  pas  une  raison  qu'il 

(verb)  venir. 

Pourquoi  done  ne  se  sont-ils      Us     savaient     qu'ils     (verb) 
pas  mis  a  Pabri.  etre  mouilles  avant  la  fin 

de  1'orage. 

Que  pensez-vous  du  temps?      Oui,    il    (verb)    pleuvoir ;    il 
Va-t-il  pleuvoir  ?  pleut  tous  les  jours  depuis 

peu  (of  late). 

Quand  sera-t-elle  a  Paris  ?  Elle    (verb)    y    etre    depuis 

deux  jours. 

7.    SUPPOSITION 

The  verb  devoir  implies  supposition  when  must,  in 
English,  stands  for  "to  suppose." 

//  a  du  faire  cela  pour  me  faire  plaisir.  "  He  must 
have  done  that  (I  suppose  he  did  that)  to  please  me." 

Note  that  il  a  du,  while  implying  supposition,  could  also  convey 
an  idea  of  certainty,  or  necessity. 


DEVOIR 


21 


Vous  devez  ne  pas  Vavoir  compris^  "  it  must  be  you  did  not  under- 
stand him." 

The  "atmosphere"  in  which  this  sentence  occurs  alone  could  deter- 
mine whether  the  speaker  wishes  to  convey  the  idea  of  supposition, 
or  of  certainty.  It  might  mean:  "I  suppose  you  did  not  understand 
him,"  or  "you  certainly  did  not  understand  him  " 

In  certain  cases  the  idea  of  duty,  or  of  obligation  might  be  involved. 

Tout  me  dit  que  je  dois parler.  "Everything  bids  me  to  speak,"  — 
"tells  me  that  I  must  speak,"  —  "that  I  should  speak,"  —  "that  it  is 
my  duty  to  speak."  However,  in  the  proper  "  atmosphere,"  the  meaning 
might  be  limited  to  "I  suppose  I  shall  speak,"  i.e.,  that  I  shall  have 
a  chance  to  speak,  —  that  I  shall  be  called  upon  to  speak. 

Let  the  student  note  that  obligation,  or  duty  are  best  expressed 
with  the  conditional,  although  the  present  can  be  used  for  the  same 
purpose. 

Tout  me  dit  que  je  devrais  parler  implies  duty,  or  obligation,  and 
could  not  possibly  convey  an  idea  of  supposition. 


EXAMPLES 


Nous    avons    du    faire    cela 

pour  vous  etre  agreable ; 

voila  ce  qu'il  dit,  n'est-ce 

pas  ? 
Us    ont     du    le    trouver    a 

1'heure  qu'il  est. 
Tout  me  dit  que  vous  devez 

chanter. 

Elle  ne  doit  pas  croire  que 

je  le  lui  donnerai. 
Vous  etes  si  bon;  vous  avez 

du  etre  bien  ge'ne'reux. 
L'ai-je   vraiment   dit?     J'ai 

du    le    dire,    si7  vous    le 

dites. 


I  suppose  we  did  that  in 
order  to  please  you.  Is 
that  not  what  he  says? 

I  suppose  they  have  found 
him  by  this  time. 

Everything  points  to  your 
singing.  (I  suppose  you 
will  sing). 

She  must  not  suppose  I  am 
going  to  give  it  to  her. 

You  must  have  given  liber- 
ally: you  are  so  generous. 

Did  I  really  say  that?  If 
you  say  so,  I  must  have 
said  it.  (I  suppose  I  did). 


22  FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 

Je  n'ai  pas  un  seul  ami  au  I  have  not  a  single  friend 
monde :  je  dois  le  savoir  in  the  world:  I  suppose 
(certainty).  /  ought  to  know. 

READING 

Elle  a  du  etre  bien  malheu reuse,  n'est-ce  pas?  Pourquoi 
pensez-vous  qu'elle  ait  du  etre  si  malheureuse?  L'honneur 
me  dit,  n'est-ce  pas,  que  je  dois  me  taire?  Pourquoi  devez- 
vous  conclure  que  je  n'ai  plus  d'espoir?  Us  doivent  avoir 
tout  entendu;  ils  y  etaient.  Qu'en  pensez-vous?  Nous 
devons  avoir  dit  cela;  mais  je  ne  m'en  souviens  pas.  Ils 
ont  du  etre  bien  sots,  si  ce  qu'on  dit  d'eux  est  vrai.  Je  ne 
vous  reverrai  plus,  dites-vous?  Je  dois  done  vous  dire 
adieu  aujourd'hui.  II  aime  tant  a  bavarder!  II  a  du  le 
dire  a  tout  le  monde.  Elle  ne  doit  pas  croire  que  tout 
lui  est  permis,  parce  qu'elle  est  riche.  Aucun  de  nous  n'est 
mort:  nous  avons  du  avoir  bien  de  la  chance. 

COMPOSITION 

You  must  have  been  very  fortunate  not  to  have  lost  all 
your  money.  I  suppose  1  acted  very  foolishly,  but  so  did 
you.  Why  doubt  it?  he  must  have  told  them;  yet  he  was 
not  the  only  one  who  knew  it.  I  suppose  they  had  a  good 
deal  of  courage.  I  am  supposed  to  have  lost  all  my  money 
(on  dit  que  je  dois).  They  must  have  heard  him  say  it  when 
he  was  with  us.  You  must  not  believe  she  is  your  friend. 
They  must  have  been  there,  otherwise  how  would  she  have 
known  it?  They  must  not  believe  I  am  going  to  do  that 
for  them.  He  is  usually  a  gentleman:  he  must  have 
drunk  too  much  wine.  I  suppose  you  were  very  kind 
to  him? 


DEVOIR 


CONVERSATION 


Vous    avez     du    etr#    bien 

triste  sans  eux  ? 
Pourquoi    pense-t-elle    que 

j'ai  du  etre  heureux  ? 

Us  ont  du  y  aller;  du  moins 

j'aime  a  le  croire. 
Us    durent    avoir    de    Pam- 

bition    quand    ils    etaient 

jeunes. 
Pourquoi  parlaient-ils  ainsi  ? 

Je  ne  pense  pas  qu'ils 
doivent  Pavoir  vue. 

II  a  du  etre  bien  malade ; 
il  est  si  pale. 


Non  ;  ce  sont  eux  qui  (verb) 

etre  tristes. 
Je   (verb)    le    penser    aussi. 

Oui,    vous    (verb)    encore 

etre  bien  heureux. 
Voyons,   dites-moi  pourquoi 

vous  (verb)  le  croire. 
Vous  avez  raison;  ils  (verb) 

avoir    beaucoup     d'ambi- 

tion  a  cet  age. 
Ils    (verb,    imperfect)    avoir 

trop  bu. 
Au     contraire ;     ils     (verb) 

Pavoir  vue. 
Pourquoi  (verb,  interrogative) 

avoir  e'te  malade  ?     II  est 

toujours  pale. 


8.    JUSTICE 

The  verb  devoir,  conjugated  reflexively,  i.e.,  Se  devoir, 
is  used  to  express  an  idea  of  justice,  or  a  duty  to  one's 
self. 

The  English  translation  is  usually  a  circumlocution 
such  as  "in  all  justice"  "to  be  in  duty  bound  to"  "to 
give  one's  help,  one's  efforts,  one  s  good  will,  one  s 
money"  etc.,  to  a  cause,  a  person,  etc. 

It  also  conveys  an  idea  of  being  entitled  to,  to  have  by  right,  etc. 

Je  me  dois  aux  pauvres,  "  I  owe  myself  to  the  poor;"  that  is,  in  all 
justice  it  is  my  duty  to  devote  myself  to  helping  the  poor. 

Je  me  dois  bien  cela,  "  I  am  well  entitled  to  have  (do,  expect,  grant, 
etc.)  that;"  that  is,  I  have  a  right  (for  instance;  having  done  so 
much  for  others)  to  do  that  (now)  for  myself. 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


-  EXAMPLES 


Le  riche  se  doit  a  ceux  qui 
n'ont  rien. 

La  mort  vous  laisse  un 
enfant  a  qui  vous  vous 
devez. 

Tous  les  bons  rois  ont  tou- 
jours  cru  qu'ils  se  de- 
vaient  a  leurs  sujets. 

Dieu  se   devait  a  lui-meme 

de  rendre  son  image  heu- 

reuse. 
On  se  devrait  de  planter  des 

arbres  ici. 
Je   me  dois  bien  un  peu  de 

repos. 
Quoique  vous  vous  deviez  a 

vos    enfants,    vous    faites 

trop  pour  eux. 


The  rich  man  should  (in  all 
justice)  help  those  who 
have  nothing. 

Death  leaves  you  a  child  to 
whom  (in  all  justice)  you 
should  devote  yourself. 

All  good  kings  have  always 
believed  they  were  in  duty 
bound  (to  protect,  etc.) 
to  their  subjects. 

God  owed  it  to  himself  to 
bring  about  the  happiness 
of  man  (his  own  image). 

It  would  be  nothing  but 
right  to  plant  trees  here. 

I  have  indeed  earned  a  little 
rest. 

Although  you  should  devote 
yourself  to  your  children, 
you  do  too  much  for  them. 


READING 

L'homme  se  doit  a  la  femme  a  cause  de  la  faiblesse  du 
sexe  feminin.  Ne  vous  devez-vous  pas  a  votre  patrie  avant 
tout?  Je  me  devais  de  le  faire;  voila  pourquoi  je  Fai  fait. 
II  se  devra  d'y  aller,  s'il  y  pense.  Elle  s'e'tait  du  d'en 
mourir.  Ne  se  devaient-ils  pas  a  cette  cause.  On  se 
devrait  moins  a  ses  enfants  si  on  les  aimait  moins;  ce  qui 
est  impossible.  II  ne  croyait  pas  qu'il  se  dut  a  ceux  qui 
Favaient  aide'.  Je  crains  fort  que  ce  ne  soit  a  vous  que  je 
me  doive.  Elles  se  devaient  a  leurs  enfants  avant  de  se 


DEVOIR  25 

devoir  aux  enfants  des  autres.  N'oublie  pas  que  tu  te  dois 
quelque  chose  a  toi-meme.  Vous  ne  vous  devez  pas  tant 
de  repos;  vous  n'avez,  pour  ainsi  dire,  rien  fait. 

COMPOSITION 

Even  a  poor  man  should  help  those  in  need.  You  owe 
it  to  that  child  to  look  after  him.  They,  in  all  justice, 
ought  to  have  told  us.  We  should  help  one  another  in  a 
foreign  country.  The  reason  I  did  it,  is  because  I  felt 
fortune  made  it  a  duty  for  me  (because  I  owed  it  to  myself, 
on  account  of  my  fortune).  In  all  justice,  he  thought  he 
ought  to  do  it  for  his  own  sake.  It  is  a  duty  to  ourselves 
to  tell  all  we  know.  He  never  believed  it  was  doing  justice 
to  himself  to  tell  the  truth.  Think  well  whom  you  are  in 
duty  bound  to  assist.  They  should  have  looked  after  their 
children :  that  was  their  first  duty  to  themselves. 


CONVERSATION 


A  qui    vous    devez -vous   le 

plus  ? 
A  qui  se  doit-on  le  plus  ? 

Ne  se  doivent-ils  pas  a  cette 

bonne  cause  ? 
Ne  vous  deviez-vous  pas  un 

peu  plus  a  son  bonheur  ? 
A  qui  pensez-vous  que  vous 

vous    devez    maintenant  ? 


Je  me  dois  de  leur   dire  la 
verite'. 


Je  (verb)  le  plus  a  ceux  qui 

m'ont  aide. 
On    (verb)    a    Dieu,    a    sa 

patrie  et  a  ses  parents. 
Oui,   il  n'y  a  aucun   doute 

qu'ils  (verb,  with  y\ 
Non;  je  ne    (verb,   with  y) 

pas,  pas  du  tout. 
Je  (verb,  imperfect)  en  temps 

de  guerre  a  ma  patrie;  je 

me  (verb)  a  present  a  ma 

famille. 
Non,  vous  ne  vous  le  (verb) 

pas. 


26  FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 

II  s'est  du  a  ce  qu'il  avait      Non ;     quand     on     promet 
promis;  a-t-il  eu  tort  ?  quelque   chose,   on   (verb, 

with  y}  tou jours. 


9.    DEVOIR   USED   IDIOMATICALLY 

The  principal  idioms  formed  with  devoir  are : 

1.  Devoir    de    retour.      To  owe  something  over  and  above 

the  bargain. 

2.  Devoir  tribut  a.      To   owe   respect   to,    to   be  slave  to, 

to  be  held  as  subject  to,  etc. 

3.  Devoir  de  reste.     To  still  be  owing,  not  to  be  satisfied 

with  what  one  has  received. 

4.  En   devoir   a.      To   bear   ill-will   to,    to    be  angry  with 

(somebody). 

5.  N'en  rien  (or  guere)  devoir  (also  conjugated  reflexively). 

Not  to  be  inferior  to,  to  be  as  good  as  (to  equal). 

6.  Qui  doit  a  tort.     He  who  owes  must  pay. 

7.  Fais  ce  que  tu  dois,  advienne  que  voudra.    Do  what  is 

right;    come  what  may. 

8.  Qui  a  terme  ne  doit  rien.     Nothing  is  due  until  rent- 

day. 

EXAMPLES 

Quoique  vous  m'ayez  paye  Although  you  have  paid  me 

toul:  ce  que  vous  me  all  you  owed  me,  there 

deviez,  vous  me  devez  still  remains  something 

encore  quelque  chose  de  due  to  me  (you  are  still 

retour.  my  debtor). 

D'autant  plus  que  Phonneur  Honor  being  dearer  to  me 

m'est  plus  cher  que  la  than  life,  I  consider  myself 

vie,  d'autant  plus  je  vous  (considering  all  you  have 

dois  de  retour.  done)  your  debtor. 


DEVOIR 


Une  femme  doit  tribut  a  la 

mode. 
Bien  des  peuplades  doivent 

tribut  a  ce  roi. 
II  croit    toujours   qu'on   lui 

en  doit  de  reste. 

Pourquoi  pensez-vous  qu'on 
vous  doive  de  reste? 

Je  vous  en  devrai  toujours: 

je    ne   puis   vous  pardon- 

ner. 
Je  lui  en  devais ;  je  me  suis 

venge. 
Votre  travail  n'en  doit  rien 

au  sien;  il  est  meme  plus 

artistique. 
Us   ne   s'en  doivent  guere: 

ils  se  valent  en  mechan- 

cete'. 
Qui  doit  a  tort,    n'est  que 

trop  vrai! 

Le  proverbe:  fais  ce  que  tu 
dois,  advienne  que  pourra, 
est  encourageant. 

Je  ne  suis  pas  oblige  de 
vous  payer  aujourd'hui. 
Qui  a  terme  ne  doit  rien. 

Qui  a  terme  ne  doit  rien 
n'est  vrai  qu'a  la  surface. 


A  woman  should  follow  (is 

slave  to)  fashion. 
Many  a  tribe   owes  tribute 

to  (is  slave  to)  this  king. 
He   is  never  satisfied  with 

what  he  has. 

What  makes  you  think  people 
are  still  owing  you? 

I  shall  ever  be  angry  with 

you:    I  never  can  forgive 

you. 
I  bore  him  ill-will;    I  have 

avenged  myself. 
Your   work    is,   in    no   way, 

inferior  to  his;  it  is  even 

more  artistic. 
Their  wickedness    is   about 

equally  great;    one  is  as 

wicked  as  the  other. 
Not   to  be  able  to  pay,   is 

indeed   sad!    (Is   but   too 

true). 
The  proverb:    do  thy  best, 

come  what  may,  is  indeed 

encouraging. 

My  rent  is  not  due;  I  am 
not  obliged  to  settle 
to-day. 

Not  to  be  owing  because 
the  time  is  not  up,  is  only 
true  on  the  surface. 


28  FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


II 

THE  MODAL  AUXILIARY  VERB 
Falloir 

The  verb  falloir  expresses: 

Necessity,  need,  or  want  Difference  between 

Obligation,  or  duty  Idiomatic  meanings 

1.    NECESSITY,   NEED,  WANT 

The  V^Q falloir  expresses  necessity  when  it  rejects  any 
idea  of  an  order  having  been  given,  or  of  an  obligation. 

II faut  du pain  pour  vivre,  "bread  is  necessary  to  life." 

Note  that  avoir  is  understood,  i.e.,  il  faut  (avoir)  du  pain  pour vivre. 

II  faudra  le  lui  dire  tot  ou  tard,  "it  will  be  necessary  to  tell  it  to  him 
sooner  or  later,"  i.e.,  it  must  become  a  necessity  sooner  or  later. 

J"ai  prie  en  vain:  il  m'a  repondu  qu'it faudra  le  lui  dire  tdt  ou  tard. 
"I  begged  in  vain:  he  answered  me  that  he  must  be  told  of  it  sooner 
or  later." 

Note  that  the  meaning  is  changed,  the  additional  clause  adding 
to  the  idea  of  necessity  that  of  an  obligation  which  now  becomes  the 
dominant  idea. 

With  the  conditional,  i.e.,  il  faudrait  le  lui  dire,  "  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  tell  it  to  him,"  an  additional  clause,  bearing  upon  the  necessity 
would  slightly  alter  the  meaning;  thus: 

II faudrait  le  lui  dire  s'il  etait  id,  means :  "  he  would  have  to  be  told 
if  he  were  here,"  (it  would  become  more  than  necessary  to  tell  him  if 
he  were  here). 

The  idea  of  necessity,  need,  or  want,  can,  however,  be  expressed  by 
the  conditional  without  a  conditional  clause  being  introduced. 


FALLOIR  29 

//  nous  faudrait  <ie  V argent,  "  what  we  need  (what  we  are  in  want  of, 
what  would  be  necessary  to  us)  is  money." 

N.  B.  —  Let  the  student  remember  that/fl//0/r,  followed  by  que  calls 
for  the  subjunctive. 

Je  ne  crois  pas  qu'il  faille  quej^y  aille,  "  I  do  not  think  it  is  necessary 
that  I  should  go  there." 

A  better  construction  is:  je  ne  crois  pas  falloir  y  aller. 

Note  the  omission  of  qu?. 

When  falloir  stands  for  au  besoin  ("if  need  be,"  "in  case  of  need") 
the  idea  of  necessity  asserts  itself. 

Au  besoin,  dites-le  lui,  "if  need  be,  tell  it  to  him,"  could  be  equally 
well  expressed  by  s'il  le  faut,  dites-le  lui. 

The  idea  of  -want,  or  need  is  further  explained  in  connection  with 
falloir  involving  difference  between  (see  section  3). 

Let  the  student  compare  the  use  of  falloir  expressing  a  necessity 
with  devoir  expressing  the  same  idea  (see  chapter  I,  section  5). 

EXAMPLES 

II  lui  fallait  de  Pargent  pour  He  needed  money  for  that. 

cela. 

J'ai    le    cheval    qu'il    vous  I  have  the  horse  you  need 

faut.  (or  want). 

II   faudrait   mille  personnes  A   thousand  persons  would 

pour  faire  cela.  be  necessary  to  do  that. 

II    a   fallu   un    Napoleon    a  It  was  necessary  for  France 

la   France   pour  lui  faire          to    have    a    Napoleon    to 

aimer  la  paix.  make     her     love     peace 

(France  had  to  have,  etc.). 

II  me  faut  des  amis  partout  I    need   friends  wherever  I 

ou  je  vais.  go.     (It  is  necessary  for 

me  to  have,  etc.). 

Combien   vous  faut-il  pour  How    much    do    you    want 

vos  marchandises  ?  (ask)  for  your  goods? 


30  FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 

II     m'aurait      fallu      votre  I  should  have  had  you  help 

aide.  me. 

Savez-vous,  vous-meme,   ce  Do  you  know  yourself  what 

qui  vous  faudrait  ?  you  would  need? 

Nous  ne  pensions  pas  qu'il  We  did  not  think  we  should 

nous  fallut  tant  d'argent.  need  so  much  money. 

READING 

Je  ne  crois  pas  qu'il  nous  faille  tant  d'argent.  Avez- 
vous  rec,u  tout  ce  qu'il  vous  faut?  II  leur  faudra  au  moins 
mille  dollars  pour  leur  voyage.  Que  lui  faut-il  encore? 
Elle  veut  done  le  monde !  II  craignait  qu'il  ne  lui  fallut 
plus  de  patience.  J'ai  bien  peur  qu'il  ne  vous  faille  ce  que 
je  n'ai  pas.  Je  sais  fort  bien  ce  qu'il  me  faut,  et  ce  qu'il 
vous  faudrait.  II  faut  du  courage  pour  etre  soldat.  Que 
n'ai-je  ce  qu'il  lui  faut!  Je  le  lui  donnerais.  Qu'il  vous 
le  faille,  ou  non,  vous  ne  1'aurez  pas. 

COMPOSITION 

I  know  what  is  necessary;  let  me  do  it  for  you.  They 
need  more  books  on  that  subject.  Did  they  tell  you  what 
they  were  in  want  of?  He  knows  what  I  want,  but  he 
says  he  has  it  not.  I  do  not  think  you  need  so  much 
money.  Who  would  have  thought  he  had  all  that  was 
necessary?  You  know  what  we  need  as  well  as  we  do. 
Do  they  need  that?  They  do  (need  it),  do  they  not?  He 
did  not  believe  he  would  need  that  book.  All  my  life 
long,  I  have  needed  some  one  to  help  me.  What  shall 
you  want  for  your  trip  ?  I  shall  want  many  things. 

CONVERSATION 

Avez-vous  tout  pris?    II  y  a      Je  n'ai  pris  que  ce  qu'il  me 
tant  de  choses.  (verb). 


FALLOIR  31 

Vous  n'aurez  pas  assez  d'ar-  Je  ne  crois  pas  qu'il  nous 

gent;  croyez-moi;  il  vous  (verb)  plus  de  cent  francs. 

en  a  deja  tant  fallu!  Ce  sera  tout  ce  qu'il  nous 

(verb,  future). 

Pourquoi  ne  vous  faut-il  que  II     me    (verb)    bien     moins 

si  peu  de  choses?  qu'aux   autres;    j'ai    plus 

d'argent  qu'eux. 

Ont-elles   fait   une   liste   de  Oui;    cette   liste  represente 

tout  ce  qu'il  leur  est  ne-  tout    ce   qu'il  leur   (verb) 

cessaire  ?  absolument. 

Que    me    faudra-t-il    a    la  A  la  peche,  il  vous  (verb)  de 

peche?  la  patience. 

Je  sais   fort    bien    ce   qu'il  Et  moi,  je  sais  ce  qu'il  vous 

vous  faudrait.  (verb). 

2.    OBLIGATION 
The  verb  f alloir  expresses  obligation : 

(a)  When  the  obligation  arises  from  an  order 

or  a  command. 

(b)  When   the   obligation  is  suggested  by  a 

strong  sense  of  duty. 

(c)  When  we  need  to  emphasize  an  idea  of 

necessity. 

Note  that,  in  most  instances,  f  alloir  is  then  translated  by  must,  or 
by  some  circumlocution  expressing  obligation,  such  as  "to  be  obliged 
to,"  "to  be  made  to,"  "to  have  received  order  to,"  etc. 

Note  also  that  shall,  in  English,  when  not  used  in  the  first  person 
(singular,  or  plural),  i.e.,  when  not  implying  mere  futurity,  often 
corresponds  to  must,  and,  therefore,  calls  tor  f  alloir. 

Note,  further,  that  the  conditional  weakens  the  idea  of  obligation, 
and  that  necessity  becomes  the  dominant  idea. 

II faudrait  It  lui  dire,  "it  might  be  well  to  tell  it  to  him." 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


Let  the  student  study  the  following  sentences: 

II  f ant  qrfil  soit  fou  pour  avoir  dit  cela,  "he  must  be  crazy  to  have 
said  that." 

This  sentence  expresses  an  obligation  not  resulting  from  an  order. 

// faut  que  vous y  alliez,  "you  must  go  there." 

This  sentence  expresses  an  obligation  resulting  from  an  order. 

//  nous  faut  lire  cet  ouvrage,  "  we  must  read  that  work." 

This  sentence  expresses  a  strong  sense  of  duty. 

Vous  a-t-il  fallu  depenser  tout  votre  argent?  "Did  you  have  to  (was 
it  absolutely  necessary  for  you  to)  spend  all  your  money?" 

II faut  qrfil  vienne,  "he  shall  come." 

This  sentence  expresses  an  order,  and  not  mere  futurity. 

N.B.  —  Let  the  student  compare  falloir  and  devoir  expressing 
obligation. 

EXAMPLES 


II  faut  que  nous  y  soyons  a 

midi. 
II  faudra  le  lui  dire,  tot  ou 

tard. 

II   m'a  fallu  le  faire;    mais 
bien  malgre  moi. 

fe  vous  avais  dit  qu'il  fallait 

commencer  aujourd'hui. 
II  leur  faudra  dire  tout  ce 

qu'ils  savent. 
II  nous  aurait  fallu  le  leur 

refuser. 
Quoi  qu'il  vous  faille,  vous 

en  demandez  trop. 
Je  ne  crois  pas  qu'il  leur  ait 

fallu  la  voir. 


We  must  be  there  at  noon. 

You  will   have   to  tell  him 

(he  will  have  to  be  told) 

sooner  or  later. 
I  had  to  (I  was  obliged  to) 

do   it,   but   much   against 

my  will. 
I  had  told  you  you  had  to 

begin  to-day. 
They  will  be  made  to   say 

all  they  know. 
We  should  have  been  obliged 

to  refuse  it  to  them. 
Whatever  you  say  you  must 

have,  you  exact  too  much. 
I    do    not   think  they   were 

obliged  to  see  her. 


FALLOIR  33 

READING 

Que  cela  vous  soit  agreable,  ou  non,  il  faut  que  vous  le 
fassiez.  II  faudra  que  vous  y  alliez  avec  nous;  votre  pere 
le  veut.  11  fallait  qu'il  fut  bien  malade  pour  avoir  pense  a 
cela.  II  vous  faudra  plus  d'argent  pour  votre  entreprise. 
II  lui  a  fallu  retourner;  le  climat  etait  malsain.  Vous  dites 
qu'il  faut  que  vous  le  fassiez?  Je  ne  crois  pas  qu'il  vous 
faille  le  faire.  II  faudrait  le  lui  dire  s'il  venait.  Croyez- 
moi;  il  vous  faudra  payer  tout  le  monde.  II  faut  toujours 
dire  la  verite.  Bon  gre,  mal  gre,  il  vous  faut  me  payer. 

COMPOSITION 

You  will  not  do  it?  I  say  you  must.  Must  we  go  with 
them  if  they  decide  to  go  there?  What  you  would  have 
to  have,  is  plenty  of  money.  Do  not  invite  them:  if  you 
do,  you  will  have  to  pay  their  expenses.  They  say  that 
they  were  obliged  to  (that  they  were  made  to)  work  night 
and  day.  I  do  not  believe  that  she  needs  so  many  dresses 
at  her  age.  He  must  have  been  very  angry  to  say  such  a 
thing.  How  much  one  must  study  to  master  a  foreign 
language!  Yes;  I  know  how  constantly  one  must  study. 

CONVERSATION 

Que  faut-il  que  je  fasse?  Vous  savez  fort  bien  ce  qu'il 

vous  (verb)  faire. 

A    quelle    heure   faut-il   que  II  (verb)  que  nous  y  soyons 

nous  y  soyons?  de  bonne  heure. 

Que  leur  faudra-t-il  dire  si  II  (verb)  leur  dire  que  je  les 

on  les  trouve  ici?  ai  invites. 

II  me  faut  cela:    donnez-le-  Quoiqu'il   vous    (verb)    cela, 

moi.  vous  ne  1'aurez  pas. 

A-t-il  fallu  qu'il  aille  en  cour  Oui;   et  il  lui  (verb)   preter 

de  justice?  serment  centre  moi. 


34  FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 

Combien     d' argent,     dites-      II  ne  me  (verb}  pas  un  sou 
vous,  qu'il  vous  faut  ?  de  moins.      II    me   (verb) 

mille  dollars. 

Pourquoi    ai-je   eu    tort    de      Vous   avez  eu  tort  de  dire 
dire  ce  que  j'ai  dit?  cela,    parce     qu'il    (verb) 

toujours  dire  la  verite'. 

Je  refuse  d'y  aller;  et  je  n'y      Eh,  bien!    Moi,  je  vous  dis 
irai  pas.  qu'il  vous  (verb)  y  aller. 


3.    DIFFERENCE   BETWEEN 

The  verb  falloir  expresses  difference  between:  — 

When  the  idea  of  lacking,  or  wanting  is  implied. 

In  such  cases,  the  verb  is  impersonal,  and  is  conju- 
gated refiexively  with  en,  i.e.,  s'en  falloir. 

The  idea  of  difference,  however,  is  only  implied ;  for 
instance : 

//  s*en  faut  que  toute  la  somme  y  soit.  "The  amount 
is,  by  no  means,  entire";  that  is,  there  is  a  difference 
between  the  amount  required  and  the  amount  mentioned. 

Note  that  beaucoup,  pen,  rien,  guere^  lant,  and  other  adverbs, 
are  often  used  with  s^en  falloir. 

Note  also  that  s*en  falloir  que  calls  for  the  subjunctive. 

The  usual  translation  of  s'en  falloir  is  "to  be  wanting,"  "to  be 
lacking,"  "there  is  a  difference  between,"  "to  be  (more  or  less)  far 
from,  etc." 

Note  also  the  use  of  de  with  such  expressions  as: 

//  s'enfallut  de  beaucoup  que  tout  le  monde  y  fut^  "everybody  was  far 
from  being  there  " 

If,  however,  the  sentence  begins  with  an  adverb,  de  is  not  always  used. 

Peu  s*en  fallut  que  tout  le  monde  y  fut,  "every  one  came  near  being 
there." 


FALLOIR 


35 


EXAMPLES 


II  ne  peut  s'en  falloir  tant. 

II  ne  s'en  fallait  rien  que 
la  fortune  ne  le  rendit 
heureux. 

II  ne  s'en  est  pas  fallu 
1'epaisseur  d'un  cheveu. 

II  s'en  faut  de  beaucoup 
qu'elle  n'ait  acheve  ce 
qu'elle  a  entrepris. 

II  s'en  faut  peu  de  chose 
que  cela  n'aille. 

De  combien  s'en  est-il  fallu  ? 

Je  ne  crois  pas  qu'il  s'en 
faille  autant  que  vous  le 
dites. 


There  cannot  be  such  a 
difference. 

Wealth  almost  made  him 
happy.  (He  came  near 
being  happy  through 
wealth). 

It  came  within  a  hair's 
thickness  (that  .  .  .  some- 
thing happened,  etc.). 

She  is  far  from  having 
finished  what  she  has 
undertaken. 

That  almost  goes  (fits,  suits, 
is  well,  etc.). 

How  nearly  was  it  brought 
about? 

There  cannot  be  so  great  a 
difference  as  you  say. 


READING 

II  s'en  faudrait  d'un  mot  pour  qu'il  se  fachat.  II  s'en 
faut  de'ja  assez  sans  que  vous  nous  disiez  qu'il  s'en  faut 
d'avantage.  Vous  dites  qu'il  s'en  faut  de  beaucoup  que 
toute  la  somme  y  soit?  II  s'en  est  fallu  d'une  minute  qu'il 
ne  soit  arrive  a  temps.  Voyons,  dites-moi;  de  combien 
s'en  faut-il?  II  s'en  faut,  voyons,  d'au  moins  mille  dollars 
que  vous  ne  m'ayez  tout  paye.  II  s'en  fallait  de  peu  de 
chose  qu'elle  ne  m'acceptat.  Qu'il  s'en  faille  peu,  ou  qu'il 
s'en  faille  beaucoup,  cela  m'est  bien  e'gal.  N'oubliez  pas 
de  lui  dire  de  combien  il  s'en  faudra.  II  ne  s'en  faut  guere, 
ou  fort  peu  de  chose. 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


COMPOSITION  * 

I  am  afraid  a  great  deal  will  be  lacking.  He  came 
within  an  inch  of  being  killed.  We  are  far  from  having 
finished.  I  do  not  think  there  can  be  so  great  a  difference 
as  you  say.  That  is  not  true;  far  from  it.  That  position 
almost  suits  me  (II  s'en  faut  de  peu  que  cette  place  ne 
m'aille).  If  she  did  not  fall  out  of  the  window,  she  came 
close  to  doing  so.  How  nearly  did  he  pay  you  up?  More 
would  still  be  due,  had  I  not  paid  all  the  small  accounts. 
This  cloth  is  blue,  or  just  about. 

CONVERSATION 


De  combien  s'en  faudrait-il 
si  je  vous  donnais  cent 
francs? 

Vous  dites  qu'il  est  presque 
arrive  a  temps? 

N'oubliez  pas  de  lui  dire  de 
combien  il  s'en  faudra. 

Voyons,  dites  la  ve'rite,  au- 
rez-vous  bientot  fini? 

La  difference  est-elle  aussi 
grande  qu'on  le  pense? 

Peu  s'en  est  fallu,  n'est-ce 
pas,  qu'elle  ne  mourut? 


II  (verb)  encore  de  beaucoup 
que  je  puisse  tout  payer. 

Oui;  il  (verb)  de  moins  de 
temps  qu'il  ne  me  faut 
pour  le  dire. 

Je  ne  sais  pas  moi-meme  de 
combien  il  (verb). 

He'las !  non ;  il  (verb)  de  beau- 
coup  que  nous  n'ayons 
fini. 

C'est  possible;  mais  je  ne 
crois  pas  qu'il  (verb)  au- 
tant  qu'on  le  dit. 

Oui;  elle  a  e'te  bien  malade. 
Elle  etait  morte  a  dix 
heures,  ou  peu  (verb). 


*  This  exercise  presents  many  difficulties  owing  to  the  numerous 
different  ways  of  expressing  the  idea  of  difference  bet-ween  in  English. 
I  would  advise  the  student  to  study  most  carefully  the  sentences  in 
the  "Examples"  and  "Reading"  exercise  of  this  lesson. 


FALLOIR  37 

4.    FALLOIR   USED   IDIOMATICALLY 

_JL    Falloir  voir.     To  be  grand,  extraordinary,  you  (or  some- 
one else)  should  have  seen,  it  was,  is,  worth  seeing,  etc. 

2.  C'est  ce  qu'il  faudra  voir.     That  remains  to  be  seen. 

I  (or  some  one  else)  will  object,  not  if  I  (or  some  one 
else)  can  help,  or  prevent  it,  etc. 

3.  Comme  il  faut.  *     Quite  proper,  gentlemanly,  ladylike, 

fashionable,  in  a  thorough  manner,  as  it  should  be,  etc. 

4.  Pourquoi  faut-il  (or  fallait-il)  que ...  why  is  it  (or  was  it) 

that;  why  did  I  (or  some  one  else)  not  refrain  from,  etc.? 

5.  II  faudra  falloir.     To  have  to  make  up  one's  mind  to, 

to  feel  that  one  will  be  obliged  to,  etc. 

EXAMPLES 

Rien  n'etait  plus  beau.  II  Beautiful?  nothing  was  more 

fallait  voir!  beautiful.  It  was  grand! 

Vous  dites  qu'il  me  faudra  You  say  I  will  have  to  do  it? 

le  faire?  C'est  ce  qu'il  that  remains  to  be  seen; 

faudra  voir.  not  if  I  can  help  it. 

Us  y  iront  sans  moi,  dites-  You  say  they  will  go  without 

vous?  C'est  ce  qu'il  fau-  me?  That  will  (or  would 

dra  (or  faudrait)  voir.  have)  to  be  seen. 

Je  ne  comprends  pas  que  I  do  not  understand  your 

vous  n'aimiez  pas  ce  mon-  dislike  to  that  gentleman: 

sieur;  il  est  tout  a  fait  he  is  quite  proper;  he  is 

comme  il  faut.  a  perfect  gentleman. 

Ne  touchez  pas  a  1'appa-  Do  not  alter  the  appearance 

rence  de  la  table:  elle  est  of  the  table;  it  is  as  it 

toute  comme  il  faut.  should  be. 

*  Not  to  be  mistaken  for  comme  il  en  faut.  In  this  form, 
en  stands  for  a  person,  or  a  thing  spoken  of,  or  involved,  hence  "such 
as  is  needed," 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


Pourquoi  faut-il  qu'il  y  soit 

alle! 
Pourquoi    fallait-il    qu'il   se 

tuat! 

11  faudra  (or  faudrait)  falloir 
tout  lui  dire. 


Why    is    it    he  went   there! 

What  made  him  go  there! 
Why    did    he    kill    himself! 

(all  would  have  been  right, 

had  he  not). 
We   shall  have  to  tell   him 

all.    We  might  be  obliged 

to  tell  him  all. 


POUVOIR  39 


Ill 

THE    MODAL   AUXILIARY   VERB 
Pouvoir 

The  verb  pouvoir  expresses : 

Ability ',  or  Inability  Possibility,  or  Impossibility 

Permission,  or  Liberty  to     Desire,  or  Longing  to 
Idiomatic  meanings 

1.   ABILITY,   OR   INABILITY 

The  verb  pouvoir  expresses  ability,  or  inability  when 
involving  a  capacity  to,  an  aptitude  to,  efficiency,  talent, 
to  be  in  a  condition  to,  etc.  (or  not  to  — ). 

Je  peux  (or  puts)  monter  a  cheval.  "I  can  ride  horse- 
back;" i.e.,  I  am  able  to,  or  can  (now,  after  an  illness,  for 
instance)  ride  horse-back. 

Mon  enfant  peut  deja  marcher.  "  My  child  can  already 
walk." 

Je  ne  peux  pas  encore  monter  a  cheval.  "I  cannot  yet 
ride  horse-back." 

Note  that,  in  the  above  examples,  the  idea  of  possibility,  or  impossi- 
bility might  be  inferred,  i.e.,  "  it  is  possible,  or  not  yet  possible  for  me 
to  ride  horse-back.  It  will,  however,  be  seen,  farther  on,  that  the  idea 
of  possibility  or  impossibility,  is  more  frequently  expressed  with 
ouvoir,  used  impersonally,  i.e.,  se  pouvoir.  ^^\  ERA  fTyN^ 

f   TWF 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


EXAMPLES 


Je  ne  pouvais  pas  parler 
frangais  1'annee  derniere. 

II  pourra  y  aller  avec  nous 
s'il  est  chez  lui. 

Nous  pouvions  mieux  mar- 
cher quand  nous  etions 
en  France. 

Je  ne  crois  pas  qu'il  puisse 
nous  dire  tout  ce  qu'il 
a  vu. 

II  /audrait  que  vous  pussiez 
lui  donner  de  1'argent. 

Sans  songer  oil  je  vais,  je 
me  sauve  oil  je  puis. 

II  peut  beaucoup,  s'il  fait 
un  effort. 


I    was    not    able    to    speak 

French  last  year. 
He  will  be  able  to  go  with 

us  if  he  is  at  home. 
We  could  walk  better  when 

we      were      in       France. 

(Walking  was  easier.) 
I  do  not  believe  he  will  be 

able  to  tell  us  all  he  has 

seen. 
It  would  be  well  if  you  could 

give  him  some  money. 
Without    knowing    where    I 

am    going,    I    flee   where 

I  can. 
He  is  able  to    do    much   if 

he  makes  an  effort. 


READING 

Non,  vraiment;  je  ne  le  peux.  II  faut  bien  lui  repondre 
comme  on  peut.  Apres  avoir  fait  cela,  on  peut  etre  con- 
tent de  soi.  Puis-je  jamais  assez  vous  aimer!  Le  fera  qui 
pourra.  Qui  pourrait  etre  malheureux  avec  vous?  II  ne 
croyait  pas  qu'il  put  arriver  a  temps.  Certainement  qu'il 
le  peut;  je  sais  ce  que  je  dis.  Je  pouvais  beaucoup  quand 
j'etais  riche;  a  present,  je  puis  beaucoup  moins.  J'ai  pu 
1'aider  alors  qu'il  en  avait  le  plus  besoin.  Si  j'avais  pu  y 
aller  avec  lui,  cela  ne  serait  pas  arrive.  Dites-lui  simple- 
ment  que  vous  ne  pouvez  pas  le  faire.  Je  crains  que  je  ne 
le  puisse. 


POUVOIR  41 

COMPOSITION 

I  did  not  believe  he  was  able  to  do  that.  He  could  (do) 
very  little  for  you  if  he  were  poor.  Of  course,  they  can, 
(do  it)  but  they  are  not  rich  enough  to  do  it.  I  never 
could  be  unhappy  where  you  are.  I  was  unable  to  help 
him;  he  asked  me  too  late.  They  will  be  unable  to  come 
here  to-day.  Were  you  able  to  resist  his  arguments?  We 
could  (do)  very  much  for  them,  but  now  we  can  (do)  but 
little.  I  have  been  unable  to  see  your  friend  this  morning, 
but  I  hope  to  be  able  to  see  him  to-morrow.  He  said  he 
feared  he  might  not  be  able  to  help  me. 


CONVERSATION 


Avez-vous  pu  Paider? 
Personne   ne   peut   le  faire: 

pourquoi  Pessayer? 
Pourrait-il    parler    frangais 

s'il  avait  etudie  en  Ame- 

rique  ? 
Pensez-vous    qu'il    puisse    y 

aller  cette  annee? 
Ont-ils   pu   beaucoup    pour 

eux? 
Pouvez-vous  me  preter  cent 

francs  ? 

Ont-ils  pu  le  lui  dire  a 
temps? 

Pourquoi  etes-vous  si  in- 
quiet  ? 


Non,  je  n'  (verb,  with  rieri). 
Moi;    je   vous    dis    que    je 

(verb)  le  faire. 
Certainement     qu'il     (verb) 

parler  frangais.     On  Pen- 

seigne  tres  bien  ici. 
Non;    je  ne  crois  pas  qu'il 

le  (verb). 
Non;  ils  n'  (verb,   with  que 

fortpeu). 
Je  ne  (verb)  le  faire;  je  vous 

les     preterais     si     je     le 

(verb). 
Non ;  ils  n'  (verb)  le  lui  dire 

avant  sa  mort. 
Je  crains  qu'il  ne  (verb)  me 

payer  ce  qu'il  me  doit. 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


2.    PERMISSION,   OR   LIBERTY   TO 

The  verb  pouvoir  expresses  permission,  or  liberty 
to,  when  it  involves  a  prayer,  making,  or  granting,  a 
request. 

Puis-je y  aller  avec  vous?     "May  I  go  with  you?" 
Vous  pouvez  le  faire  si  cela  vous  fait  plaisir.     "You  may 
do  it  if  it  gives  you  any  pleasure." 

Note  that  vous  pouvez  y  aller  might  mean  "you  can  go,"  i.e.,  you 
are  able  to  go ;  but  if  we  add  si  cela  vous  fait  plaisir,  the  idea  of 
granting  a  request  becomes  evident. 


EXAMPLES 


Puis-je   aller    voir   si  votre 

frere  est  la  ? 
Vous    m'aviez    dit    que    je 

pouvais  y  aller  avec  vous. 

Je  ne  crois  pas  qu'il  puisse 
venir;  sa  mere  Ten  em- 
pechera. 

Nous  pouvons  faire  ce  que 
bon  nous  semble;  on  nous 
1'a  permis. 

J'ai  prie  en  vain;  je  ne  peux 
aller  a  Paris  avec  vous. 


May  I  go  and  see  if  your 
brother  is  there? 

You  had  told  me  I  would 
be  allowed  (I  might,  could) 
to  go  there  with  you. 

I  do  not  think  he  will  be 
at  liberty  to  come;  his 
mother  will  prevent  him 
(doing  so). 

We  have  permission  to  do 
whatever  we  please.  (We 
have  been  given  permis- 
sion to  — .) 

I  asked  in  vain;  they  will 
not  let  me  go  (I  may  not, 
can  not)  go  to  Paris  with, 
you. 


POUVOIR  43 

Pourraient-ils  venir  si  j'en  Would  they  be  allowed  to 
parlais  a  leur  pere  ?  come  if  I  spoke  to  their 

father? 

Nous  avions  son  consente-  We  had  his  consent;  we 
ment;  nous  pouvions  done  were,  therefore,  at  liberty 
le  dire.  to  tell  it. 

READING 

Vous  pouvez  le  lui  dire  maintenant;  je  ne  m'y  oppose 
plus.  Pourriez-vous  disposer  de  votre  fortune  sans  le  con- 
sentement  de  votre  femme?  On  ne  peut  plus  cracher  sur 
les  trottoirs  a  Boston;  la  loi  y  a  pourvu.  J'avais  bien  peur 
qu'il  ne  put  1'epouser.  Non;  mon  ami,  vous  ne  pouvez 
pas  faire  ce  que  vous  dites;  vous  etes  trop  jeune.  En 
Amerique,  une  jeune  fille  peut  beaucoup  de  choses  qui  ne 
lui  sont  pas  permises  en  France.  Je  n'ai  pu  y  aller  qu'apres 
en  avoir  demande  la  permission.  .  Nous  ne  pensons  pas 
qu'ils  puissent  vous  le  dire;  c'est  un  secret.  Peut-on  vous 
ecrire,  maintenant  que  vous  etes  en  prison? 

COMPOSITION 

My  father  told  me  I  could  not  do  it.  Could  they  go 
there  with  us  if  we  had  a  gentleman  with  us?  I  am  not 
allowed  to  go  to  the  theatre  alone.  We  were  only  at 
liberty  to  go  when  we  had  finished  our  lesson.  They  fear 
they  cannot  obtain  permission  to  be  absent  so  long  a  time. 
We  were  afraid  they  could  not  come;  their  parents  did  not 
like  the  idea.  Can  you  do  as  you  please,  now  that  you  are 
of  age  ?  One  is  never  free  to  do  wrong  (faire  le  mal)  if 
one  listens  to  the  voice  of  conscience.  May  they  tell  us 
that  secret  now?  Yes;  they  are  at  liberty  to  do  so. 


44 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


CONVERSATION 


Puis-je  aller  jouer  avec  mon 

petit  frere? 
Pourquoi    n'avez-vous    pas 

pu  venir  hier  soir  ? 
J'avais  bien  peur  qu'elle  ne 

put  1'epouser. 
Est-il    vrai    qu'une    femme 

peut  aller  au  the'atre  seule 

en  Amerique? 
Elle    ne    croit    pas    qu'elle 

puisse  nous  accompagner; 

tout  le  monde  s'y  oppose. 
Ont-ils    la    permission    de 

jouer  dans  la  rue? 
Pourquoi    ne    pouviez-vous 

pas     me     dire     cela     la 

semaine  derniere? 


Non;  vous  ne  (verb)  pas 
encore  aller  jouer  avec  lui. 

Je  nj  (verb)  venir,  parce  que 
mon  pere  s'y  est  oppose'. 

Elle  n'  (verb)  1'epouser  qu'au 
dernier  moment. 

Certainement;  une  femme, 
en  Amerique,  (verb)  aller 
seule  un  peu  partout. 

Je  crois  que  sa  mere  ne  s'y 
oppose  pas;  elle  lui  a  dit 
qu'elle  (verb,  with  le). 

Leur  mere  leur  a  dit  qu'ils 
(verb,  with  le). 

Je  ne  (verb,  with  le)  pour 
plusieurs  raisons;  mais  a 
present  je  (verb,  with  le). 


3.    POSSIBILITY,   OR   IMPOSSIBILITY 

The  verb  pouvoir  expresses  possibility,  or  impossi- 
bility when  it  rejects,  more  or  less  forcibly  the  idea  of 
request  or  permission,  while  still  retaining  a  relation  to 
the  idea  of  ability. 

Rien  ne  peut  etre  plus  beau.  "Nothing  can  be  more 
beautiful." 

On  ne  peut  aimer  d1  amour  qu*une  fois.  "We  can  love  but 
once." 

Note  that  pouvoir  involves  the  idea  that  nothing  can  possibly 
be  more  beautiful,  or  that  it  is  impossible  for  anything  to  be  more 
beautiful;  and  the  possibility  of  loving  but  once,  or  the  impossibility 
of  loving  more  than  once. 


POUVOIR 


45 


Conjugated  impersonally  and  reflexively>  i.e.,  se  pouvoir,  the  idea 
of  possibility,  or  impossibility,  becomes  very  definite. 

//  se  pent  que  fy  aille  avec  vous.  "  It  is  quite  possible  that  I  shall 
go  with  you." 

Ne  se  pourrait-il  pas  qu*il  y  ftit?  "  Might  he  not  be  there;  is  it  not 
a  possibility  that  he  is,  or  was  there? " 


EXAMPLES  - 


II  pouvait   avoir   deux   ans, 

tout  au  plus. 
Rien  ne  peut  etre  plus  beau; 

vous  devriez  le  voir. 


Puis-je  jamais  assez  vous 
aimer !  Vous  avez  tant 
fait  pour  moi. 

II  a  pu  le  dire;  mais  je  ne 
le  crois  pas. 

J'ai  fait  tout  ce  qu'il  s'est  pu. 

Je  ne  crois  pas  que  cela  se 

puisse. 
II  se  pouvait  done  que  vous 

en  devinssiez  riche. 
Je    ferai    tout    ce    qu'il    se 

pourra. 


He  was  possibly  two  years 

old;  at  the  most. 
It  is  impossible  for  anything 

to  be  more  beautiful;  you 

should    see   it.     (Nothing 

could  be  .  .  .) 
Is  it  possible  for  me  to  ever 

love    you    enough  ?     You 

have  done  so  much  for  me. 
It  is  quite  possible  he  said 

it;  but  I  do  not  think  so. 
I    did    my    very    best    (all 

that  was  possible). 
I  do  not  believe  that  that  is 

possible. 
Y'ou  might  then  have  become 

rich  by  that. 
I  shall  do  all  I  can  (all  that 

can  possibly  be  done). 


READING 

Je  ne  sais  si  cela  se  peut;  mais  tout  se  peut.  Cela  ne 
se  peut  pas  ne  pas  etre.  II  pouvait  y  etre  vers  dix  heures. 
Nous  ne  pourrons  jamais  finir  cet  ouvrage  aujourd'hui. 
Je  maintiens  que  cela  se  pouvait:  vous  vous  y  etes  pris 


46 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


(you  began)  trop  tard.  II  ne  se  peut  rien  de  plus  beau. 
On  ne  pouvait  le  faire  sans  nous.  Je  me  demande  encore 
si  cela  se  peut.  Elle  a  pu  faire  cela;  mais  elle  ne  le  fera 
plus.  Je  vous  assure  que  je  n'ai  pu  venir  plus  tot.  11  m'a 
promis  de  faire  tout  ce  qu'il  se  pourra.  Tout  se  peut  a  qui 
veut  (for  one  who  is  bent  upon  doing  it).  Que  ne  se 
peut-il  de  nos  jours! 

COMPOSITION 

You  say  that  that  is  impossible?  I  say  it  can  be.  It 
may  be  she  is  there,  if  so,  it  is  with  her  mother.  They 
assured  us  that  they  did  all  they  could;  do  you  think  they 
did  (do  all  they  could)?  That  child  may  be  older  than 
you  think.  Could  anything  be  more  beautiful?  Is  it 
possible  that  anything  in  the  world  be  more  admirable? 
It  is  quite  possible  he  said  that.  I  do  not  think  that 
that  is  now  possible.  He  may  have  been  there,  or  he  may 
not  have  been  there;  it  is  none  of  your  business  (cela  ne 
vous  regarde  pas).  Who  says  that  that  is  possible?  I  say 
it  is  impossible. 

CONVERSATION 


Savez-vous     s'il     se     peut 

qu'elle  arrive  aujourd'hui? 
Quel    age    avait-elle   quand 

elle  est  morte? 
Cela  ne  se  peut  pas. 
Que  vous  a-t-il  dit  pour  vous 

encourager? 
Se  pourrait-il  qu'il  vint  sans 

elle? 
Je  me  suis  demande   toute 

la  journee  comment  cela 

s'est  pu. 


Oui;   il   (verb)  qu'elle  arrive 

a  trois  heures. 
Elle  (verb)  avoir  de  quarante 

£  cinquante  ans. 
Pourquoi  cela  ne  (verb)  pas? 
II  m'a  dit  qu'il  ferait  tout  ce 

qu'il  (verb). 
Cela  ne  (verb)  pas;    elle  ne 

peut  se  passer  de  lui. 
Cela  (verb)  de  cette  maniere: 

ils  se  sont  donne  un  ren- 

dez-vous. 


POUVOIR  47 

Vous  ne  pourrez  jamais  le  Que  cela  (verb,  present  sub- 
faire;  cela  ne  se  peut  que  junctive)  rarement,  ou 
rarement.  jamais,  je  vais  1'essayer. 

Se  pouvait-il  qu'ils  y  fus-  Non  seulement  il  (verb}  qu'ils 
sent?  y  fussent;  ils  y  etaient. 


4.    DESIRE,   OR  LONGING  TO 

The  verb  pouvoir  expresses  desire,  or  longing  to, 
when: 

(a)  Preceded  by  que  ne,  and  the  interrogative 

form  of  the  verb. 

(b)  When  used  in  the  stibjunctive  mood  at  the 

beginning  of  a  sentence.      Both  kinds 
of  sentences  then  become  exclamatory. 

(a)  Que  ne  puis-je  parler  fran$ais  !    "Could  I  but  speak 
French!"     "I  would  so  like  to  speak  French!" 

Note   that  this  construction  applies  to  all  verbs  in  the  same  sense. 

Que  n'efais-je  la  !  "  Would  that  I  had  been  there  ! "  "  If  I  had  only 
been  there ! "  "I  do  so  wish  I  had  been  there ! " 

Note,  also,  that  this  construction  with  pouvoir  adds  to  the  idea 
of  desire  that  of  ability;  thus:  Que  ne  puis-je  parlerjran$ais,  might 
mean  "  I  wish  I  were  able  to  speak  French." 

(b)  Puissiez-vous   arriver  a  temps !     "I  do  hope  (trust, 
desire,  wish)  you  may  arrive  in  time." 

Puisse-t-elle  etre  heureuse /  "May  she  be  happy  ! "  (I  hope 
she  will  be  happy.) 

N.B. —  Note  that  pa 5-,  of  the  negation  ne...pas>  can  be  omitted 
in  the  conjugation  of  pouvoir.  There  is,  however,  a  slight  shade 
of  meaning  to  be  observed; 


48  FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 

Je  ne  peux,  conveys  the  idea  that  you  still  have  some  doubts, 
some  indecision,  some  hesitation  about  it. 

Je  ne  peux  pas,  is  a  decided  negation. 

However,  this  shade  of  meaning  is  not  often  observed. 

Let  the  student  thoroughly  analyse  the  meanings  of  the  verb 
pouvoir  in  this  section :  the  translation  will  then  become  an  easy 
task,  several  English  forms  answering  for  one  use  of  pouvoir. 

EXAMPLES* 

Que  ne  puis-je  vous  le  dire!      I  would  so  like  to  tell  it  to 

you  (but  I  must  not) ! 

Que  ne  le  pouvait-elle  plus      Had  she   but  been   able  to 
.     tot!  do  it   before    (we  did  so 

much  want  her  to) ! 
Que    ne    pouvions  -  nous     y      Oh,  we  too  did  so  wish  to 

aller  aussi!  go  (had  we  but  gone) ! 

Puissiez-vous  les  consoler!          I  do  hope  you  will  be  able 

to  console  them ! 
Puisse-t-il  ne  pas  les  croire!      It  is  to  be  hoped  he  will  not 

believe  them ! 

Puissions-nous  tout  faire!  How  we  long  to  do  (it)  all! 

Que  ne  put-il  tout  leur  dire!      How  we  hoped  he  would  be 

allowed  to  tell  them  all ! 
Helas!  Que  ne  le  puis-je!  Alas!  would  that  I  could! 

READING 

Puissions-nous  le  revoir  avant  de  mourir!  Puisse-jef  de 
mes  yeux  y  voir  tomber  la  foudre!  Puissent  tous  nos  amis 

*  This  use  of  pouvoir  is  considered  stilted.  It  is  not  often 
used  in  prose,  but  it  occurs  frequently  in  poetry,  especially  in  the 
classic  drama. 

t  Note  the  acute  accent  on  puisse.  This  is  a  poetic  subjunctive 
in  the  interrogative  form.  See  grammar  on  the  interrogative  forms  of 
French  verbs. 


POUVOIR  49 

arriver  aujourd'hui!  Puisse-t-il  etre  heureux  pendant  sa 
vieillesse!  Puisse  perir  comme  eux  quiconque  leur  res- 
semble!  Puissiez-vous  ne  jamais  oublier  tout  ce  que  j'ai 
fait  pour  vous!  Que  ne  puis-je  chanter  comme  elle!  Que 
ne  put-on  les  en  empecher!  Puissent-ils  vivre  assez  long- 
temps  pour  finir  leur  entreprise!  Que  ne  pouvions-nous 
les  voir  aussi!  Que  ne  le  pouviez-vous! 

COMPOSITION 

Mayest  thou  (I  do  hope  thou  wilt  be  able  to)  see  all 
thy  dreams  come  true.  Could  he  but  see  him  before  he 
returns.  I  would  gladly  see  him  die.  Oh,  to  be  happy, 
even  if  it  were  but  for  a  short  time.  We  do  so  long  (but 
cannot)  to  go  with  you.  May  all  die  (we  would  like  to 
see  them  all  die)  who  do  not  love  their  country.  We 
do  hope  you  will  never  forget  her  (may  you  never  forget 
her).  Had  we  but  been  able  to.  do  it  before.  It  is  to 
be  hoped  he  will  never  see  her  again.  Why  did  she  not 
come !  Had  we  but  been  able  to  speak  to  them ! 

CONVERSATION* 

Vous  etes  done  bien  fache      Oui ;     puisse- je    ne    jamais 

contre  moi  ?  vous  revoir ! 

J'ai  toujours  espere  qu'elle      Puisse-t-elle  se  bien  marier ! 

se  marierait. 

Que  ne  puis-je  vous  aider!      Dire    «que  ne    puis-je, »    et 
Helas!  Je  ne  le  puis.  ajouter   «je    ne    le   puis,» 

n'est  guere  encourageant. 

Pourquoi  etes-vous  si  triste  ?      Leur  mere  se  meurt.     Puis- 
sent-ils arriver  a  temps ! 

*  The  student  need  not  be  told  that  actual  conversation  with 
pouvoir  used  to  express  desire,  or  longing,  is  next  to  impossible, 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


Que     vous     a-t-elle     ecrit  ? 


Nous  ne  pourrons  guere  la 

consoler. 
Cela  est  arrive,  parce  qu'ils 

n'etaient  pas  la. 


Rien    que  ces   mots:    «Que 

ne    puis-je    etre    oil   vous 

etes ! » 
Puissions-nous  cependant  en 

avoir  Poccasion  ! 
Que  ne  pouvaient-ils  partir 

plus     tot !       Us     seraient 

arrive's  a  temps. 


5.    POUVOIR   USED   IDIOMATICALLY 

1.  Sauve   qui   peut !     Fly  who  can,  every  one  for  himself, 

save  your  life. 

2.  Je  ne  peux   qu'y  faire.     I  cannot  help  it,  I  cannot  do 

anything  about  it. 

3.  II   en    sera    ce    qu'il    peut.      Come    what    may,    come 

what  will. 

4.  II   y   peut    tant    de   personnes.      So    many    (a   certain 

number   of)    persons    can    assemble   there    (the   room 
may  hold  so  many). 

5.  N'en    pouvoir    plus.      To    be    tired,    exhausted,    out    of 

patience,  beside  one's  self. 

6.  N'en  pouvoir  rien,  or   mais,  not  to  be  able  to  help  it, 

not  to  be  one's  fault. 


EXAMPLES 

C'est  Napoleon  qui,  le  pre- 
mier, cria,  «sauve  qui 
peut,»  a  Waterloo,  dit  un 
historien  beige. 


Je  vous  assure  que  je   n'ai 

pu  qu'y  faire. 
II  est  possible  que  je  perde 

mon  argent,  il  en  sera  ce 

qu'il  peut. 


It  was  Napoleon  who,  the 
first,  at  Waterloo,  cried 
out,  "Every  one  for  him- 
self," says  a  Belgian 
historian. 

I  assure  you  I  could  not 
prevent  it  (help  it). 

I  may  lose  my  money;  mat- 
ters must  take  their  course 
(come  what  may). 


POUVOIR 


II  y  aura  assez  de  place 
pour  tout  le  monde :  il 
s'y  peut  deux  cents  per- 
sonnes. 

J'ai  marche  toute  la  jour- 
ne'e;  je  n'en  puis  plus. 

Pourquoi     m'accuser  ?       Je 

n'en  pouvais  rien. 
II  pretendit  qu'il  n'en  pou- 

vait  mais. 


There  will  be  room  enough 
for  everybody.  Two  hun- 
dred persons  can  be 
seated. 

I  have  been  walking  all 
day ;  I  am  exhausted 
(tired  out). 

What  accuse  me  ?  I  could 
not  help  it. 

He  pretended  it  was  not  his 
fault. 


52  FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


IV 

THE  MODAL  AUXILIARY  VERB 
Savoir 

The  verb  savoir  expresses : 

Knowledge ',  or  Understanding          Ability,  or  Inability 
Idiomatic  meanings 

1.    KNOWLEDGE,   OR   UNDERSTANDING 

The  verb  savoir  expresses  knowledge,  or  under- 
standing, when  it  applies  to  things,  and  is  not  followed 
by  a  verb  in  the  infinitive.* 

Je  sais  ma  le$on,  "I  know  my  lesson." 

Je  ne  sais  ce  que  c'est,  "I  do  not  know  what  it  is." 

Note  that  in  such  expressions  as:  /Vw,  je  ne  sat*  quoi,  "I  have, 
I  know  not  what,"  and  je  suis  tout,  je  ne  sais  comment,  "  I  am  quite, 
I  cannot  exactly  tell,"  the  idea  involved  is  that  of  one's  health, 
not  understanding  what  is  one's  trouble. 

Conjugated  reflectively,  i.e.,  se  savoir,  the  idea  of  knowledge 
assumes  the  meaning  of  "to  become  known,"  or  to  know  one's, 
or  somebody's,  propensities,  sentiments,  disposition,  etc. 

Tout  se  sait  tdt  ou  tard,  "all  becomes  known  sooner  or  later." 

Pensez-vous  que  cela  se  sache?  "Do  you  think  that  is  known,  or 
may  become  known?" 

*  In  an  idiomatic  sense,  savoir  can  apply  to  persons.  It 
then  means  that  the  speaker  knows  "where  to  find"  a  certain 
person,  or  that  a  person  "exists."  Je  sais  un  ami  qui  vous  aidera, 
"  I  know  a  friend  who  will  help  you." 


SAVOIR 


53 


//  se  sait  capable  de  tout,  "he  feels  able  to  do  everything," 
i.e.,  he  knows  himself  capable  of  doing  everything,  or  anything. 

//  ne  se  savait  pas  ruine,  "he  did  not  know  himself  to  be  ruined," 
i.e.,  he  was  unaware  he  was  ruined. 


EXAMPLES 


Vous  ne  saurez  jamais  votre 

lec^on. 

Je  ne  1'ai  pas  su  a  temps. 
II    faut     que    je    le     sache 

aujourd'hui. 
Tout     s'est     su     des      son 

arrivee. 
Ne  faudrait-il  pas   que  cela 

se  sut  ? 
Vous  verrez,   elle   ne  saura 

pas  oil  le  trouver. 
Je  ne  suis  pas  malade;  mais 

j'ai  je  ne  sais  quoi. 

Us  ne    sauront    oil    cela    se 

trouve. 
Je  ne  saurais  cette  nouvelle 

si    vous    ne     me     Taviez 

apprise. 
Faut-il  vous  voir  mourir,  et 

n'en  savoir  la  cause! 
Je    ne    lui    savais    pas    tant 

d'amour  pour  elle ! 


You  will    never    know  your 

lesson. 

I  did  not  know  it  in  time. 
I  must  know  it  (be  told  of 

it)  to-day. 
All  was  known  (found  out) 

as  soon  as  he  arrived. 
Would    it   not  be  well  that 

that  were  known? 
You    will  see,   she  will   not 

know  where  to  find  it. 
I  am  not  ill,  but  I  am  ailing 

generally    (something     is 

the  matter  with  me). 
They  will  not  know  where 

to  find  it  (where  it  is). 
I  would  not  know  that  news 

had  you  not  told  it  me. 

Must  I  then  see  you  die  and 
not  know  from  what? 

I  did  not  know  he  loved  her 
so  much. 


READING 

Nous  savons  tout  ce  que  nous  de'sirons  savoir.     Vous  ne 
saurez  jamais  ce  qu'ils  ont  dit  de  vous.     Ne  faudrait-il  pas 


54  FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 

que  vous  le  sussiez  plus  tot?  II  nous  a  fallu  le  savoir 
aujourd'hui.  Je  suis  tout  je  ne  sais  comment  depuis  pres 
de  huit  jours.  Faut-il  le  savoir  et  etre  oblige  de  se  taire! 
Elle  ne  savait  pas  ce  dont  elle  parlait.  Je  m'en  sais 
capable.  Croyez-moi,  tout  se  saura,  meme  si  vous  ne  le 
dites  pas.  Pourquoi  pensez-vous  qu'il  faille  que  cela  se 
sache?  Je  ne  vous  savais  pas  tant  de  courage.  Que  ne 
sais-je  (I  would  I  knew)  oil  il  s'en  est  alle!  Ne  le  leur 
dites  pas  que  vous  Tavez  su.  Vous  etes  tout  je  ne  sais 
comment:  qu'avez-vous  done  fait? 

COMPOSITION 

Those  who  know  it  should  tell  it.  Even  if  I  knew  it, 
I  would  not  tell  you.  Would  it  not  be  well  (falloir)  that 
he  knew  it?  I  feel  all  out  of  sorts;  what  can  be  the 
cause?  The  reason  he  does  it  is  because  he  knows  he  can 
do  it  (se  savoir,  with  capable).  All  had  to  be  known 
sooner  or  later.  What  did  they  not  know!  It  would  be 
better  (//  vaudrait  mieux  que,  with  imperfect  subjunctive) 
that  they  never  knew  it.  She  knows  it  all.  We  should 
have  known  (//  aurait  fallu  que)  it  sooner;  now,  it  is  too 
late.  We  did  not  know  you  were  so  ambitious.  Believe 
me,  I  know  nothing  at  all  about  it.  You  did  not  know 
your  lesson  yesterday.  Can  one  ever  know  when  to  use 
savoir  in  French! 

CONVERSATION 

Savez-vous  ou  elle  s'est  en  Oui;  je  le  (verb)  mais  je  ne 
allee?  (verb)  si  je  dois  vous  le 

dire. 

Comment  cela  s'est-il  su,  le  Cela  (verb)  parce  qu'il  faut 
savez-vous?  que  tout  (verb). 


SAVOIR 


55 


Saviez-vous  cette  nouvelle 
hier  matin? 

fites-vous  malade  ?  vous  avez 
1'air  tout  je  ne  sais  com- 
ment. 

Faut-il  vraiment  que  vous 
le  sachiez  ? 

Dites  tout  ce  que  vous  sa- 
vez:  on  ne  vous  demande 
rien  de  plus. 

Quand  cela  s'est-il  su  ? 

Je  vous  savais  capable  de 
tout ;  mais  pas  de  cela. 


Je    vous    sais 
faites-le. 


du    courage : 


Je  ne  P  (verb)  que  ce  matin 

(fart,  indefinite). 
Je     me     sens    tout    je     ne 

(verb)     comment     depuis 

huit  jours. 
Oui;  il  faut  que  je  le  (verb) 

ce  matin  meme. 
Je  ne  puis  leur  dire  tout  ce 

que     je     (verb)    quoiqu'il 

faille  qu'ils  le  (verb). 
Cela    (verb)    quand    il    est 

arrive. 
Vous     ne     me     (verb)    pas 

capable    de    cela,    dites- 

vous;  et  pourquoi  pas? 
Vous  m'en   (verb)    trop,    ou 

trop  peu. 


2.    ABILITY,   OR   INABILITY 

The  verb  savoir  expresses  ability,  or  inability,  when 
the  idea  involved,  in  English,  is:  "to  know,"  or  "not  to 
know,  how  to,"  "to  have  the  means  of,  or  the  common 
sense  to,"  etc.  It  is  then  followed  by  a  verb  in  the 
infinitive. 

Je  ne  sais  pas  danser,  "I  do  not  know  how  to  dance," 
i.e.,  I  am  not  able  to  dance  (not  knowing  how). 

Je  sais  faire  cela,  "I  am  able  to  do  that,"  i.e.,  I  know 
how  to  do  that. 

//  ne  sut  pas  user  de  sa  victoire,  "he  had  not  the  common 
sense  to  take  advantage  of  his  victory." 

//  ne  saura  y  aller,  "he  will  not  have  the  means  to  (not 
know  enough  to,  not  have  the  common  sense  to)  go  there." 


56  FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 

Used  in  the  conditional,  and  in  the  imperfect,  or 
pluperfect  of  the  subjunctive,  with  ne,  the  verb  savoir 
assumes  the  sense  of  pouvoir  when  expressing  impos- 
sibility. (See  chapter  III,  section  3.) 

Je  ne  saurais  y  aller  sans  vous,  "I  can  really  not  go 
without  you,"  it  would  be  impossible  for  me  to  go  without 
you. 

On  lui  avait  dit  qifil  etait  le  plus  beau  gar$on  qu>on  n^eut 
su  voir.  "She  had  been  told  he  was  the  handsomest  fellow 
one  could  see,"  i.e.,  that  it  was  impossible  to  see  a  hand- 
somer fellow. 

N.B. —  Note  that  the  pas,  of  the  negation  ne  .  .  .  pas,  can  be 
omitted  in  the  conjugation  of  savoir. 

EXAMPLES 

II  ne  sait  en  venir  a  bout.  He  cannot  bring  it  about. 

Je  ne  sais  pas  lire;  mais  je  I    cannot    read,    but    I   can 

sais  chanter.  sing. 

Vous  ne  savez  rien  faire  du  You  cannot  do  anything  at 

tout.  all. 

Croyez-moi,   vous  ne  saurez  Believe    me,    you   will    not 

en  profiter.  have     sense     enough     to 

take  advantage  of  it. 

Nous  ne  pensions  pas  qu'il  We    did    not  think  he  was 

sut  faire  des  armes.  able    to    fence    (that    he 

knew  how  to). 

Je  ne  saurais  vous  le  dire  I    could    not    tell    you  that 

sans  sa  permission.  without  his  permission. 

Vous    ne    sauriez    le    faire,  You  would  not  know  how  to 

meme  si  je  vous  le  per-  do  it,   even   if   I   allowed 

mettais.  you  to. 


SAVOIR  57 

Plusieurs  des  generaux  de  Several  of  Napoleon's  gen- 
Napoleon  ne  savaient  ni  erals  did  not  know  how  to 
lire  ni  ecrire.  read  or  write. 

Je  saurai  bien  me  defendre.  I  shall  know  enough  to 

defend  myself. 

Vous  ne  sauriez  trop  faire  You  could  not  do  too  much 

pour  lui.  for  him. 

* 

READING 

Si  je  ne  sais  parler  frangais,  c'est  de  ma  faute.  Sauriez- 
vous  me  dire  ou  je  puis  le  voir?  Je  ne  saurais  vous  le  dire 
meme  si  je  le  savais.  Saura-t-il  au  moins  s'en  tirer  (get 
out  of  it)?  Elle  ne  savait  ni  jouer  ni  chanter;  mais  elle 
composait  admirablement.  Avant  tout,  il  faut  savoir  plaire. 
Que  je  sache,  ou  queje  ne  sache  pas  naviguer,  je  vais  aller 
sur  le  lac.  Ne  sauraient-ils  y  penser  sans  que  vous  le  leur 
disiez?  Elle  n'a  pas  su  le  voir  a  temps.  Si  j'avais  su 
parler  le  frangais  j'aurais  eu  cette  place.  Que  ne  sais-je 
(I  would  I  could,  were  able  to)  chanter!  Nous  saurons 
parler  le  frangais  quand  nous  aurons  etudie  assez  long- 
temps.  Sachez  travailler  et  vous  en  viendrez  a  bout. 

COMPOSITION 

I  do  not  know  how  to  work;  that  is  why  I  do  nothing 
well  (rien  de  bien).  Could  you  tell  us  where  you  were 
yesterday?  I  could  not  tell  you,  even  if  I  wished  to  (si je 
le  voulais).  Can  they  speak  French?  They  were  able  to 
speak  French  very  well  some  years  ago.  Were  they  able  to 
arrive  in  time,  I  do  not  intend  to  wait  for  them.  You  will 
never  be  able  to  bring  it  about  without  my  help.  He  will 
know  how  to  make  use  (se  servir  de)  of  his  knowledge  of 
French.  I  was  unable  to  speak  French  last  year,  and  now 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


I  know  how  to  use  the  principal  idioms  of  the  language. 
Know  how  to  will  (vouloir),  and  you  will  be  able  to  do  all 
that  is  necessary  (falloir). 

CONVERSATION 
Savez-vous    parler    le   fran-      Non ;    je  (verb)  parler  1'an- 


c.ais  aussi   bien  que  1'an- 

glais? 
Sauraient-ils  me  le  dire  si  je 

le  leur  demandais? 
Savait-elle     chanter     avant 

d'aller  en  France? 
Pourquoi    me   faut-il  savoir 

leur  faire  plaisir? 

Sauriez-vous   me   rendre  un 

service,     si    je    vous    en 

priais? 
J'ai   su   chanter  assez  bien 

quand  j'etais  jeune. 
Sait-elle  au  moins  enseigner 

quelque  chose? 

Saviez-vous    qu'ils    sussent 
gagner  tant  d'argent? 


glais   mieux   que   le  fran- 

c.ais. 
Us  ne  (verb)  vous  le  dire; 

j'en  suis  certain. 
Non;  elle  ne  (verb)  ni  chan- 
ter, ni  jouer. 
II  vous  faut  (verb)  leur  faire 

plaisir  pour  plusieurs  rai- 

sons. 
Certainement;  je  (verb)  faire 

tout  ce  que  vous  pourriez 

desirer. 
Je  ne  savais  pas  que  vous 

(verb)  chantez. 
Elle    ne    (verb,    conditional) 

bien  enseigner  quoi  que  ce 

soit. 
Je  ne  (verb)  vous  le  dire;  je 

les  connais  fort  peu. 


3.    SAVOIR   USED   IDIOMATICALLY 

The  principal  idioms  formed  with  savoir  are : 

1.  Savoir  gre"  a  quelqu'un.    To  be  thankful  (to  some  one) 

for,  to  be  grateful  for.     (With  bon^  and  mauvais,  to 
bear  good  will  to,  to  bear  ill  will  to.) 

2.  Un,   je   ne  sais   qui.     An  unknown  person,  an  outcast, 

a  person  of  no  consequence. 


SAVOIR 


59 


3.  Je  ne  sais  quoi.     I  know  not  what,  something  strange, 

odd,  peculiar. 

4.  Je  ne  sache  personne.    I   am    not  aware   that   there  be 

any  one.     I   know  of  nobody. 

5.  Je  ne  sache  nen.     I  know  nothing  that  .  .  . 

6.  Que  je  sache.     That  I  know  of. 

7.  Savoir  son   monde.     To   know   whom   one  has   to  deal 

with.     To  understand  people. 

8.  A  savoir.     That  is  to  say,  i.e.,  namely,  to  wit. 

9.  C'est   a    savoir.     That    remains    to   be   known,  or  seen. 

I  doubt  it. 

10,  Avoir    du    savoir    faire.      To    have    ability    in    some 

direction. 

11.  Avoir   du    savoir   vivre.      To    have   knowledge   of   the 

world.     To  be  polite,  to  have  good  manners. 

EXAMPLES 


Je    vous    sais    gre    de    me 

Pavoir  dit. 
Je  vous  assure  que  je  vous 

en  sais  bon  gre. 
Je  lui  en  saurai  mauvais  gre 

toute  ma  vie. 
Je     ne     puis      comprendre 

comment   un,    je    ne  sais 

qui,  soit  votre  ami. 
II  y  avait  dans  ses  yeux,  je 

ne  sais  quoi,  de  me'chant. 

Je  ne  sache  personne  au 
monde  de  plus  heureux 
que  lui. 

Je  ne  sache  rien  de  plus 
desagreable  que  d'etre 
oblige'  de  faire  cela. 


I    am   thankful  to  you  for 

having  told  me  of  it. 
I  assure  you  that  I  bear  you 

good  will  for  it. 
I  shall  bear  him  ill  will  for 

it  all  my  life  long. 
I  cannot  understand  how  a,  I 

know  not  what  (a  rascal), 

can  be  your  friend. 
There  was  in  his  eyes  a,  I 

know  not  what,  that  was 

wicked. 

I  know  nobody  in  the  world 
,  happier  than  he. 

I  know  of  nothing  more 
disagreeable  than  to  be 
obliged  to  do  that. 


6o 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


II     n'est     pas     ici     que    je 

sache. 
N'ayez    aucune    crainte;    je 

sais  mon  monde. 
Vous  dites  que  je  le  dirai, 

c'est  a  savoir. 

J'aurais    cru    qu'il    eut   plus 
de  savoir  faire. 

On    peut    avoir    du    savoir- 
vivre  sans  etre  un  savant 


He  is  not  here  that  I  know 

of. 
Fear  nothing,  I  know  whom 

I  have  to  deal  with. 
You    say   that    I    shall    say 

that;   that  remains  to  be 

seen. 
I    would    have    thought   he 

would  have  had  (or  had) 

more  ability. 

One    may    have  good   man- 
ners    without     being     a 

scholar. 


VOULOIR  6l 


V 

THE  MODAL  AUXILIARY  VERB 
Vouloir 

The  verb  vouloir  expresses : 

Wish,  Desire,  or  Want  Willingness,  or  Consent 

Determination,  or  Command      Idiomatic  Meanings 

1.    WISH,   DESIRE,   WANT 

The  verb  vouloir  implies  to  wish,  or  to  desire  when 
it  stands  for  dtsirer  (to  desire),  or  avoir  envie  de  (to 
wish). 

Que  voulez-voust    "What  do  you  desire,  or  wish?" 
Je    voudrais    un  peu   d }  argent,     "I    would    like     a    little 
money." 

The  verb  vouloir  also  expresses  the  idea  of  to  want, 
or  to  want  to  in  the  sense  of  "to  desire,"  or  "to  wish," 
but  not  when  to  want  implies  "to  be  in  need  of,"  "to 
lack."  In  this  sense  to  want  is  usually  translated  by 
avoir  besoin  de,  or  with  falloir. 

Que  voulait-ilt  "What  did  he  want,  ask  for,  wish, 
desire?"  (Not  "what  was  he  in  want  of,"  "lacking,"  or 
"failing  to  have.") 


62 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


//  veut  tant  y  alter!  "He  does  so  desire,  wish,  or  want, 
to  go  there!" 

Note  that  there  is  no  need  of  his  going,  but  merely  that  he 
would  like  to  go,  i.e.,  that  he  wishes,  desires,  or  wants  to  go 
there. 

Se   vouloir,    implies  the  idea  of  "wishing  to,  or  for,  one's  self."* 
//    se    veut    trop    d'argent.      "He    wishes    too    much     money    for 
himself." 

EXAMPLES 


II  m'a  dit  qu'il  voulait  vous 

voir  aujourd'hui. 
Savez-vous  ce  qu'il  veut  de 

moi? 
II     voudrait      vous      parler 

d'une  certaine  affaire. 
Je  ne  voudrais  pas  1'aider, 

meme  si  je  le  pouvais. 

Je  crains  qu'il  ne  veuille  pas 

de  nous. 
Nous  ne  pensions  pas  qu'ils 

voulussent    nous    accom- 

pagner. 
Us    voudront    que    nous    y 

allions  avec  eux. 
Je  ne  puis  vouloir  ce  qu'elle 

ne  veut  pas. 

Je  voudrais  bien  vous  dire 
quelques  mots. 

*  Se     vouloir     is    very     seldom 
idiomatic. 


He   told   me   he   wanted   to 

see  you  to-day. 
Do     you     know     what     he 

wants  of  me? 
He  would  like  to  speak  to 

you  about  a  certain  affair. 
I   would    not    wish   to   help 

him,  even   if   I  could  (do 

so). 
I  am  afraid  he  will  not  want 

us. 
We     did     not     think     they 

desired  to  accompany  us. 

They    will    want    us    to    go 

there  with  them. 
I  cannot  desire  (wish,  to  do, 

etc.)  what   she    does   not 

wish. 
I  would   like   to   say   a  few 

words  to  you. 

used,      and     is     nearly     always 


VOULOIR  63 

READING 

Elle  ne  pense  qu'a  ce  bal:  elle  voudrait  tant  y  aller!  Je 
le  voudrais  si  je  croyais  que  ce  fut  possible.  S'il  nous 
accompagne,  il  voudra  nous  commander.  Que  voulez-vous 
en  echange?  Ne  voulait-il  pas  que  nous  le  crussions?  Je 
ne  crois  pas  qu'elle  veuille  aller  au  theatre  avec  nous.  Ne 
voulez-vous  pas  quelque  chose;  —  un  verre  de  vin?  Merci; 
je  voudrais  bien  un  peu  de  vin  et  un  biscuit.  Dieu  veuille 
qu'ils  ne  nous  voient  pas!  Nous  craignions  qu'ils  ne  vou- 
lussent  nous  revoir.  II  veut  vous  voir,  dites-vous?  Je  ne 
puis  comprendre  ce  qu'il  peut  vouloir  de  vous.  Ce  sont  de 
bons  amis:  ils  nous  veulent  mille  bonheurs.  Je  ne  saurais 
vouloir  ce  que  mes  parents  ne  veulent  pas. 

COMPOSITION 

Does  he  not  say  he  wants  to  see  us  before  we  leave? 
What  do  they  want  of  me?  She  knows  I  shall  do  all  she 
wishes  (future}.  We  are  afraid  they  may  want  us  to  sing 
at  the  concert.  How  can  I  wish -it;  —  it  would  be  of  no 
use  to  me  (cela  ne  me  servirait  de  rien).  Tell  me  what  you 
wish,  and  you  shall  have  it.  Well  (Eh,  bien!),  I  would 
very  much  like  to  go  to  Europe  with  them.  Do  you  not 
think  she  will  want  more  than  her  share  (of  it)  ?  I  cannot 
tell  you  (je  ne  saurais  vous  dire)  what  they  want.  Were  I 
to  wish  it  (imperfect),  my  father  would  give  it  to  me. 
Whether  he  wishes  it,  or  not  (present  subjunctive,  with  que), 
he  will  not  have  it.  He  does  wish  (unto  himself)  so  many 
friends ! 

CONVERSATION 

Que  vous  veut-il  done; — le      Je  ne  crois  pas  qu'il  sache 
sait-il  lui-meme?  ce     qu'il     (verb,    present 

indicative). 


64 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


Voyons,  dites-moi,  en  peu  de 
mots,  ce  qu'ils  veulent  de 
nous. 

Je  crains  qu'ils  ne  veuillent 
pas  etre  des  notres. 

Pourquoi    voudront-ils    que 

nous     le     fassions?       Le 

savez-vous  ? 
Us    ont    craint    qu'elle    ne 

voulut  de  lui. 
Je  voudrais  vous  dire  deux 

mots  a  Poreille. 
Qu'a-t-elle     done     depuis 

quelques  jours? 
Dieu    veuille    qu'il    ne    soit 

pas  Ik! 


Ce   qu'ils   (verb,  conditional) 

de  vous,  j'ai  dans  1'idee, 

c'est  de  1 'argent. 
Pourquoi   done  croyez-vous 

qu'ils    ne    (verb)    pas    de 

votre  societe? 
Us  (verb)  que  vous  le  fassiez, 

pour  n 'avoir  pas  a  le  faire 

eux-memes. 
Moi,  j'ai  craint   qu'elle   ne 

(verb)  de  son  frere. 
Dites-moi     devant    tout    le 

monde  ce  que  vous  (verb). 
Elle   (verb,  conditional)  tant 

vous  demander  pardon ! 
Je  dis  comme  vous:  que  Dieu 

(verb)  qu'il  n'y  soit  pas! 


2.   DETERMINATION,   OR   COMMAND 

The  verb  vouloir  expresses  determination,  or 
command  when,  in  English,  the  idea  of  "to  will  it," 
"to  insist  upon  it,"  "to  order,"  "to  be  determined," 
etc.,  is  involved. 

Je  veux  que  vous  fassiez  cela.  "I  insist  upon  your  doing 
that,"  I  am  determined  you  shall  do  that,  I  order  you  to 
do  that,  you  must  do  that,  etc. 

Note  that  although,  in  English,  "to  will,"  in  the  sense  of  "to 
insist  upon,"  i.e.,  "I  will  it,"  is  seldom  used,  it  best  corresponds 
to  vouloir  in  the  above  sense. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  "  to  will,"  in  the  sense  of  "  to 
bequeathe,"  is  not  translated  by  vouloir. 


VOULOIR  65 

N.  B. —  Let  the  student  carefully  study  the  ideas  implied.  In 
many  instances,  vouloir  may  seem  to  express  one  idea  as  clearly  as 
another  different  idea.  For  instance: 

Je  veux  du  pain,  could  mean:  "I  am  determined  to  have  some 
bread,"  or  "I  wish,  would  like  to  have,  some  bread." 

If  "je  veux  du  pain,"  is  an  answer  to  the  question  que  votdez- 
vous?  (what  do  you  wish),  the  meaning  becomes  very  plain;  but 
if  you  merely  state  the  fact  that  you  need  bread,  in  the  sense  of 
that  you  wish,  or  desire,  bread,  je  veux  du  pain,  becomes 
ambiguous.  In  all  such  cases,  it  is  preferable  to  use  the 
conditional ;  e.g.,  je  voudrais  dtt  pain,  "  I  should  like  to  have  (I 
desire,  I  wish,  I  want)  some  bread."  While,  then,  je  veux  du 
pain,  could  mean  "I  desire  some  bread,"  it  would  be  more  apt 
to  mean  "I  insist  upon  having  bread."* 

Note  also  that  vouloir  has  two  imperatives: 

(a)    Veux,  voulons,  voulez. 

(fj)    Veuille,  veuillons,  veuillez. 

Of  these  different  forms  veuillez  is  the  only  one  frequently 
used.  It  is  a  dignified  and  polite  form,  used  at  the  beginning  of 
a  sentence,  in  the  sense  of  ''please,"  "be  so  kind  as  to,"  "have 
the  goodness,"  etc. 

Veuillez  me  dire  votre  nom.  "  Please  tell  me  your  name,  be  so 
kind  as  to  tell  me  your  name."** 

As  dignified  politeness  is  out  of  place  in  familiar  conversation, 
the  form  veuille  (2.  person  singular)  would  be  affected. 

*  It  may  not  be  out  of  place,  right  here,  to  narrate  the  story, 
so  well-known,  of  a  Frenchman,  who  had  fallen  into  the  water, 
and,  being  on  the  point  of  drowning,  shouted  out  in  English: 
"I  will  be  drowned,  and  no  one  shall  save  me!"  He  certainly 
did  not  want  to  drown;  hence,  he  would  not  have  said,  in  French, 
"je  veux  me  noyer,"  but  "je  vais  me  noyer"  (I  am  going  to  drown); 
nor  did  he  mean  that  no  one  would  be  allowed  to  save  him; 
hence  "shall  save  me"  should  be  translated  by:  " ne  veut  done  pas 
me  sauver"  is  willing  to  save  me. 

**  A  sentence  beginning  with  veulliez,  does  not  necessarily 
reject  other  forms  of  politeness  being  used  with  it.  For  instance: 
Veuillez,  ie  vous  prie,  me  dire  votre  nom.  "  I  beg  of  you,  be  so 
kind  as  to  tell  me  your  name." 


66 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


The  forms  veux,  voulons,  voulez  are  also  very  seldom  used. 
They  are,  however,  sanctioned  by  the  "Academie"  in  the  sense  of 
"will  it": 

Veux-le,  et  tu  le  pourras,  "will  it,  and  you  will  be  able  (to 
do  it)." 

EXAMPLES 


A  quoi  bon  tant  parler?    Je 

le  veux. 
Nous  voulons  de  1'argent,  et 

nous  en  aurons. 


Veux  -  le,    et 
faire. 


tu    sauras    le 


Nous  voulons  que  vous 
fassiez  cela  aujourd'hui, 
que  vous  le  vouliez,  ou 
que  vous  ne  le  vouliez  pas. 

II  vous  faut  le  vouloir  pour 
pouvoir  le  faire. 

Le  voudriez-vous  que  je  ne 

le  ferais  pas. 
J'ai   eu.  beau   vouloir;    il   a 

refuse  d'y  aller. 
Ne  dites  pas:    «je  le  veux»; 

dites:  «je  voudrais  bien». 


Why  so  much  talk?    I  insist 

upon  it. 
We  are  determined  to  have 

some  money,  and  we  shall 

have  some. 
Make  up  your  mind  to   it, 

and   you  will  be  able  to 

do  it. 
We  order  you  to  do  that  to 

day,  whether  you  wish,  or 

whether  you  do  not  wish 

(to  do  it). 
You    must    make    up    your 

mind  (to  it)  to  be  able  to 

do  it. 
Were  you   to  command   me 

(to  do  it)  I  would  refuse. 
I  ordered  him  in  vain;    he 

refused  to  go  there. 
Do  not  say:   "I  will  it,"  but 

say:    "I  would  much  like 

to." 


READING 

Souvenez-vous  du  proverbe:  «qui  veut,  peut.»  Je  Pai 
voulu  faire,  rien  que  pour  me  moquer  d'eux.  II  voulait 
malgre  tout  que  cela  fut  ainsi.  Meme  apres  lui  avoir  dit 


VOULOIR  67 

que  nous  savions  tout,  ne  voulait-elle  pas  que  nous  la  crus- 
sions?  Ne  craignez  rien:  je  leur  dirai  que  c'est  moi  qui 
1'ai  voulu.  Vous  ne  voulez  pas  le  faire,  dites-vous?  Eh, 
bien !  a  present  c'est  moi  qui  dis  que  je  veux  que  vous  le 
fassiez.  Le  voudriez-vous  que  je  resisterais.  Nous  avions 
peur  qu'ils  ne  le  voulussent;  ils  sont  si  obstines!  II  aurait 
fallu  que  vous  Peussiez  voulu.  II  est  facile  de  dire: 
«voulez-le!))  Nous  aurons  beau  le  vouloir.  Mon  enfant, 
ne  dites  pas:  «je  veux»;  ce  n'est  pas  poli.  Ne  veuillez 
pas  vous  perdre,  et  vous  etes  sauves. 

COMPOSITION 

Remember  this:  he  insists  upon  our  telling  him  the 
truth.  They  are  determined  to  do  it  whether  you  wish  it 
or  not.  We  had  to  (falloir)  insist  upon  it.  In  spite  of 
all  you  may  say,  he  will  be  bent  upon  going  away.  If  they 
had  been  determined  to  do  it,  they  would  have  done  it 
sooner/  It  is  I  who  say  I  will  it.  Were  you  to  say 
"I  will"  (it),  I  would  answer,  "I  will  not"  (it).  I  was 
fearfully  afraid  he  would  do  it  (i.e.,  be  determined  to  do 
it).  It  is  no  longer  a  question  of  whether  you  wish  it;  it 
is  for  you  to  know  that  I  command  it.  His  answer  was: 
"I  won't!"  (je  ne  veux  pas).  Children,  do  not  say:  "I 
will ! "  Since  my  father  wills  it,  I  will  it. 

CONVERSATION 

II  n'a  pas  dit:  «je  voudrais  Eh,  bien!  dites-lui,  de  ma 
y  aller» ;  mais:  «je  veux  part,  que  moi,  je  ne  le 
y  aller».  (verb)  pas. 

II  nous  a  fallu  le  vouloir  de  On  ne  peut  jamais  reussir 
toute  notre  ame.  sans  le  (verb).  Vous  devez 

le  savoir. 


68 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


Le     voudraient-ils,     que     je 

refuserais  encore. 
J'ai  eu  beau  vouloir;  je  n'ai 

pu  le  faire. 

Dites  la  verite:  je  le  veux. 

Ne  vouliez-vous  pas  que 
nous  y  allions  malgre  le 
danger  ? 

N'ayez  pas  peur:  je  leur 
dirai  que  c'est  elle  qui  Pa 
voulu. 

Us  le  voulaient:  pouviez- 
vous  desobe'ir  ? 


Croyez-moi:     ils    le    (verb, 

future). 
Vous    avez    done    oublie    le 

proverbe :       « qui      (verb) 

peut?» 
Que  vous  le  (verb),  ou  non ; 

moi  je  ne  le  (verb)  pas. 
Si    je     (verb)    que    vous    y 

allassiez,     c'est     que     je 

savais  qu'il  n'y  avait  pas 

de  danger. 
£tes-vous  bien   certain   que 

ce    soit   elle   qui   P   (verb, 

past  subjunctive)  ? 
Je    ne    crois    pas    qu'ils    P 

(verb). 


3.    WILLINGNESS,   OR   CONSENT 

The  verb  vouloir  expresses  willingness  or  consent 
when,  in  English,  the  idea  of  "to  be  willing,"  "to  con- 
sent," "to  have  no  objection,"  etc.,  is  involved: 

Pensez-vous  qu'il  veuille  bien  nous  le  donner?  "  Do  you 
think  he  will  be  willing,  he  will  consent  to,  he  will  have 
no  objection  to,  give  it  to  us?" 

//  n'a  pas  voulu  nous  le  dire.  "He  refused  to  tell  it  to 
us  (he  was  not  willing  to  tell  it  to  us).'7 

Elle  ne  voudra pas  chanter..  "She  will  object  to  singing 
(will  not  consent  to  sing)." 

Note  that  when  willingness,  or  consent  is  implied,  it  is  better  to 
add  the  adverb  bien.  This  is  almost  imperative  with  the  first 
person  singular  in  the  affirmative  form. 


VOULOIR 


69 


Je  veux  bien,  "I  am  willing." 
Je  voulais  bien,  "I  was  willing." 
//  voudra  bien,  "He  will  be  willing." 
Nous  voudrions  bien,  "  We  should  be  willing." 
The   adverb  bien  can  also  be  used,  to  add  force  to  vouloir  when 
desire  is  involved,  but  never  when  determination  is  implied.* 

Je  voudrais  bien  y  alter  avec  vous,   "  I  should  very  much  like  to 
go  with  you." 


EXAMPLES 


Faire  cela?    Je  le  voudrais 

que  je  ne  le  pourrais. 
Pensez-vous     qu'il     veuille 

nous  le  donner? 
Je    ne    crois    pas    qu'il    le 

veuille. 
II  ne  voulait  pas  y  consentir 

sans  vous  en  avoir  parle. 

Demandez-lui:    il  le  voudra 

peut-etre. 
Nous  le  voulons  bien;  mais 

a  une  condition. 
Si  elle  1'avait  voulu,  elle  nous 

Paurait  dit. 
Elle   le  voudra  bien;    mais 

c'est  lui  qui  ne  le  voudra 

pas. 


Do  that?  Even  if  I  were 
willing,  I  could  not. 

Do  you  think  he  will  con- 
sent to  give  it  to  us? 

I  do  not  believe  he  will  be 
willing. 

He  was  unwilling  to  consent 
before  speaking  to  you 
about  it. 

Ask  him;  he  may  consent. 

We  are  willing,  but  on  one 

condition. 
Had   she   been  willing,   she 

would  have  told  it  to  us. 
She  will   be  willing,  but   it 

is    he   who    will    not    (be 

willing). 


*  In  such  a  sentence  as,  Ce  que  je  veux,  je  veux  bien,  "what  I 
am  determined  upon,  I  will  it  well,"  bien  assumes  a  different 
meaning.  It  corresponds  to  the  popular  English  expression  "with 
a  vengance ."  It  is  equivalent  to  "to  be  bent  upon,"  "to  will  a 
thing,"  i.e.,  to  be  determined  upon  a  thing  with  all  the  strength  of 
one's  mind,  or  soul. 


7O  FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


READING 

Pensez-vous  qu'il  veuille  bien  faire  cela  pour  nous?  II  n'a 
pas  voulu  nous  dire  oil  il  avait  passe  la  soiree.  Pourquoi 
dites-vous  qu'elle  ne  voudra  pas  consentir?  Quant  a  moi, 
je  veux  bien.  II  voudra  bien  nous  accompagner  si  nous  le 
lui  demandons.  Nous  ne  voulions  pas  y  consentir;  mais 
des  que  nous  avons  su  que  vous  le  vouliez  bien,  nous  le 
leur  avons  permis.  Pourquoi  dites-vous  que  c'est  a  une 
condition  que  vous  le  voulez  bien?  Je  le  voudrais  que  je 
ne  le  pourrais.  Nous  le  voudrions  que  personne  ne  nous 
croirait.  Ce  n'est  plus  une  question  de  vouloir;  mais  de 
pouvoir.  Voyons;  soyez  aimable;  et  dites-nous  que  vous 
le  voulez  bien,  ne  fut-ce  que  pour  nous  faire  plaisir. 


COMPOSITION 

If  I  were  you,  I  would  not  consent.  Whether  I  am 
willing,  or  not,  it  cannot  be  done.  Child,  do  not  say 
"I  will,"  but  "I  am  willing"  (bien).  They  refused  to  eat 
at  our  table.  What  did  they  say?  Was  it,  "we  are  not 
willing,"  or  "we  will  not"?*  Even  if  we  consented,  you 
would  not  be  willing  to  run  the  risk.  I  assure  you,  it  is 
now  merely  a  question  of  good  will  on  your  part.  What 
makes  you  think  they  will  not  consent  ?  Did  you  not  tell 
him  she  was  not  willing  to  see  him  ?  Had  you  only  been 
willing,  he  would  have  consented  too.  May  God  grant 
that  they  be  willing! 

*  This  sentence  illustrates  how  subtile  the  modal  auxiliaries  are. 
" Nous  ne  voulons  pas"  here  will  translate  "we  wdll  not,"  but  not 
"  we  are  not  willing."  The  latter  should  be  translated,  "  nous  n'y 
consentons  pas" 


I  R  k        p 

or  TH 


VOULOIR 

CONVERSATION 


C'est  vous  qui  ne  le  voulez 

pas. 
Je     ne     crois     pas     qu'elle 

veuille  nous  dire  oil  elle 

est  alle'e. 
Us  ne  voudront  pas;    c'est 

moi  qui  vous  le  dis. 

Ne  vous  a-t-on  pas  dit  que 
votre  mere  ne  le  voulait 
pas? 

Pourquoi  n'ont-ils  pas  voulu 
e'crire  cette  lettre  pour 
vous? 

Demandez-le  leur:  ils  le 
voudront;  j'en  suis  cer- 
tain. 

Elle  ne  Pa  pas  voulu;  voila 
tout  ce  que  je  sais. 


Vous  vous  trompez:  moi,  je 
le  (verb)  bien. 

Et  pourquoi  pensez-vous 
qu'elle  ne  (verb)  pas  nous 
le  dire? 

Je  ne  suis  pas  de  votre  avis: 
ils  le  (verb)  bien  pour  me 
faire  plaisir. 

Si  j'avais  su  que  ma  mere 
ne  P  (verb,  pluperfect  sub- 
junctive) je  ne  Peusse  pas 
fait. 

Je  ne  sais  pas:  ils  m'ont  dit 
qu'ils  P  (verb,  past  con- 
ditional) ecrire  pour  tout 
autre  que  moi. 

Je  ne  suis  pas  aussi  certain 
que  vous  qu'ils  le  (verb, 
present  subjunctive). 

Eh,  bien!  moi,  je  vous  dis 
maintenant  qu'elle  le 
(verb,  future)  avant  ce 
soir. 


4.    VOULOIR  USED  IDIOMATICALLY 

The  principal  idioms  formed  with  vouloir  are : 

1.    En  vouloir  £.*     To  be  angry  with,  to  bear  ill-will  to  a 
person,  etc. 

*  En    vouloir   &    also    means   "to   have   designs   upon,"  "to   aim 
at,"  "to  try  to  get,"  etc. 


72 


FRENCH    MODAL    AUXILIARIES 


2.  Se   le   vouloir.      To    bring   it    upon   one's   self,   to  have 

only  one's  self  to  blame. 

3.  Vouloir  du  bien  a.     To  be  kindly  disposed  towards,  to 

bear  good  will  to,  etc. 

4.  Que   voulez-vous  !      How   can   it  be  helped  ?     What  can 

I  do?     What  is  that  to  me? 

5.  Vouloir  dire.     To  mean. 

6.  Veuillez.      Please,   be   so  kind  as  to.      Have  the  kind- 

ness to,  etc. 

EXAMPLES 


Je   ne  pense  pas  qu'il  vous 

en  veuille. 
II   vous  en   voudra   si   vous 

faites  cela. 
Je    sais   fort   bien    qu'il    en 

veut  a  ma  place. 
C'est  lui  qui  se  Test  voulu; 

pourquoi  se  plaint-il? 

Vous    dites    que    vous    me 

voulez  du  bien?    Je  ne  le 

crois  pas. 
II  a  perdu  tout  son  argent? 

Que  voulez-vous? 
Je  ne  comprends  pas  ce  que 

vous  voulez  dire. 
Veuillez        me       pardonner 

encore  une  fois. 


I  do  not  believe  he  is  angry 

with  you. 
He  will  owe  you  a  grudge  if 

you  do  that. 
I  know  very  well  that  he  is 

aiming  at  my  position. 
He  brought  it  upon  himself; 

why    then    does    he   com- 
plain? 
You    say    you    feel    kindly 

towards    me?     I    do    not 

believe  it. 
He  has  lost  all  his  money? 

What  is  that  to  me  ? 
I    do   not  understand  what 

you  mean  (wish  to  say). 
Be  so  kind  as  to  forgive  me 

once  more. 


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Victor  HugO'S  Bug  Jargal.  With  notes  by  Professor  Boielle  of  Dulwich  College, 
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Erckmann-Chatrian's  Waterloo.  Abridged  and  annotated  by  Professor  O.  B.  Super 
of  Dickinson  College.  Boards.  189  pages.  35  cts. 

Champfleury's  Le  Violon  de  Faience.     With  notes  by  Professor  ciovis  Bevenot, 

Mason  College,  England.     Paper.     118  pages.     25  cts. 

Gautier'S  Voyage  en  Espagne.  With  notes  by  H.  C.  Steel.  Paper.  112  pages. 
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Balzac's  Le  Cur6  de  Tours.  With  notes  by  Professor  C.  R.  Carter,  Wellington 
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compiled   by  Mme.  T.  F.  Colin  of  Miss  Baldwin's   School,  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa.     Paper. 
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Dumas'S  La  Question  d'Argent.  A  comedy,  with  introduction  and  notes,  by  G.  N. 
Henning,  Assistant  in  French,  Harvard  University.  Boards.  136  pages.  30  cts. 

Dumas's  La  Tulipe  Noire.  With  notes  by  Professor  C.  Fontaine,  Central  High 
School,  Washington,  D.  C.  Boards.  220  pages.  40  cts. 

Lesage'S  Gil  Bias.  Abbreviated  and  edited,  with  introduction  and  notes,  by  Professor 
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sity. Boards.  224  pages.  40  cts. 

SarCCy'S  Le  Siege  de  Paris.  With  introduction  and  notes  by  Professor  I.  H.  B. 
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Loti'S  Pecheur  d'Islande.      With  notes  by  R.  J.  Morich.     Boards.     30  cts. 

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Choix  d'Extraits  de  Daudet.  Selected  and  edited  with  notes  by  William  Price, 
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Sept  Grands  AuteurS  dU  XIXe  Siecle.  Lectures  in  easy  French  on  Lamartine, 
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University.  Cloth.  160  pages.  60  cts. 

French  Lyrics.  Selected  and  edited  with  notes  by  Professor  Bowen  of  the  University  of 
Ohio.  Cloth.  198  pages.  60  cts. 

Victor  Hugo's  Hemani.  With  introduction  and  notes  by  Professor  Matzke  of  Leland 
Stanford  University.  Cloth,  228  pages.  70  cts. 

Victor  Hugo's  Ruy  Bias.  With  introduction  and  notes  by  Professor  Garner  of  the 
U.  S.  Naval  Academy,  Annapolis.  Cloth.  253  pages.  75  cts. 

Racine's  Esther.  With  introduction,  notes,  and  appendixes  by  Professor  I.  H.  B.  Spiers 
of  William  Perm  Charter  School.  Paper,  no  pages.  25  cts. 

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Ra,Cine'S  Andromaque.  With  introduction  and  notes  by  Professor  B.  W.  Wells  of  the 
University  of  the  South.  Boards,  ooo  pages.  30  cts. 

Comeille'S  Le  Cid.  With  introduction  and  notes  by  Professor  Warren  of  Adelbert 
College.  164  pages.  Cloth,  50  cts. ;  boards,  30  cts. 

Comeille'S  PolyeUCte.      With  introduction  an'd  notes  by  Professor  Fortier  of  Tulane 

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Moliere'S  Le  Tartuffe.      With  footnotes  by  Professor  Case,  England.     Boards.    25  cts. 

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PirOn'S  La  Me'tromanie.  Comedy  in  verse,  with  notes  by  Professor  Delbos,  Eng- 
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pages.     75  cts. 

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Meissner's  German  Conversation.      Not  a  phrase  book  nor  a  method  book,  but  a 
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Harris's    German    Composition.      Elementary,  progressive,  and   varied  selections, 
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Grimm's  Marchen  and  Schiller's  Der  Taucher  (Van  der  Smissen).    Bound  in 

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Andersen's  BilderbUCh  Ohne  Bilder.  With  notes  and  vocabulary  by  Dr.  Wilhelm 
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Leander'S  Traumereien.  Fairy  tales  with  notes  and  vocabulary  by  Professor  Van  der 
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Volkmann'S  Kleine  GeSChichten.  Four  very  easy  tales,  with  notes  and  vocabulary 
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Storm's  Immensee.  With  notes  and  vocabulary  by  Dr.  Wilhelm  Bernhardt,  Washing- 
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Trommel's  EingCSChneit.  With  notes  and  vocabulary,  by  Dr.  Wilhelm  Bernhardt. 
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Spyri's  Moni  der  GeiSSbub.  With  vocabulary  by  H.  A.  Guerber.  Boards.  76 
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Baumbach's   Die  Nonna.      With  notes  and  vocabulary  by  Dr.  Wilhelm  Bernhardt, 
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Riehl's  Das  Spielmannskind ;  Der  stumme  Ratsherr.    Two  artistic  and  en- 
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Franqois'S  Phosphorus  Hollunder.      With  notes  by  Oscar  Faulhaber.     Paper.     77 
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Onkel  lind  NichtC.      An  original  story  by  Oscar  Faulhaber.  No  notes.  Paper.  64  pages. 
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Ebner-Eschenbach's   Die  Freiherren  von  Gemperlein   and  Krambambuii. 

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Schiller's  Maria  Stuart.      With  introduction  and  notes  by  Professor  Rhoades,  Univer- 
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Schiller's  Wilhelm   Tell.      With  introduction  and  notes  by   Professor   Deering  of 
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Baumbach'S  Der  SchwiegersOhn.      With  notes  by  Dr.  Wilhelm  Bernhardt.    Boards. 
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PlautUS  Und  Terenz;   Die  SonntagSJager.      Two  comedies  by  Benedix,  and  edited 
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Selections  for  Sight  Translation.  Fifty  fifteen-line  extracts  compiled  by  Mme. 
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Benedix's  Die  HOChzeitsreise.  With  notes  by  Natalie  Schiefferdecker,  of  Abbott 
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Arnold's  Fritz  auf  Ferien.  With  notes  by  A.  W.  Spanhoofd,  Director  of  German 
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AUS  HerZ  Und  Welt.  Two  stories,  with  notes  by  Dr.  Wilhelm  Bernhardt.  Boards, 
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Novell etten-Bibliothek.  Vol.  I.  Six  short  and  interesting  modern  stories.  Selected 
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pages.  60  cts. 

NOVelletten-BibliOthek.  Vol.  II.  Six  stories  selected  and  edited  as  above.  Cloth. 
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Unter  dem  Christbaum.  Five  Christmas  Stories  by  Helene  Stokl,  with  notes  by  Dr. 
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Hoffman's  HistOriSChe  Erzahllingen.  Four  important  periods  of  German  History, 
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no  pages.  25  cts. 

WildenbrUCh's  Das  edle  Blut.  Edited  with  notes  by  Professor  F.  G.  G.  Schmidt, 
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WildenbrUCh's  Der  Letzte.  With  notes  by  Professor  F.  G.  G.  Schmidt,  of  the  Uni- 
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Stifter'S  Das  HaidedOrf .  A  little  prose  idyl,  with  notes  by  Professor  Heller  of  Wash- 
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ChamisSO'S  Peter  Schlemihl.  With  notes  by  Professor  Primer  of  the  University  of 
Texas.  Boards.  100  pages.  25  cts. 

Eichendorff's  Aus  dem  Leben  eines  Taugenichts.     With  notes  by  Professor 

Osthaus  of  Indiana  University.     Boards.     183  pages.     35  cts. 

Heine's  Die  HarzreiSe.  With  notes  by  Professor  van  Daell  of  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology.  Boards.  102  pages.  25  cts. 

Jensen's  Die  braune  Erica.  With  notes  by  Professor  Joynes  of  South  Carolina  Col- 
lege. Boards.  106  pages.  25  cts. 

Holberg'S  Niels  Klim.  Selections  edited  by  E.  H.  Babbitt  of  Columbia  College. 
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Meyer's  GustaV  AdOlfs  Page.  With  full  notes  by  Professor  Heller  of  Washington 
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With  introduction  and  notes  by  Professor  Johnson  of  Bowdoin 
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ScheffePs  Trompeter  VOn  Sakkingen.  Abridged  and  edited  by  Professor  Wencke- 
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Scheffel'S  Ekkehaid.  Abridged  and  edited  by  Professor  Carla  Wenckebach  of  Welles- 
ley  College.  Cloth.  Illustrated.  241  pages.  70  cts. 

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Goethe's  Sesenheim.  From  Dichtungund  Wahrheit.  With  notes  by  Professor  Huss 
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Goethe's  Meisterwerke.  The  most  attractive  and  interesting  portions  of  Goethe's 
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